1. Unit One Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives
PreAP Human Geography
Unit One
Geography: Its Nature
and Perspectives

2. Key Concepts That Define Geography
Location—the position of something on earth’s surface
Space—the physical gap or distance between two objects

3. Key Concepts That Define Geography
Scale—the relationship between the size of an object or distance between objects on a map and the size of the actual object or distance on earth’s surface

4. Key Concepts That Define Geography
Place—a specific point on earth with human and physical characteristics

5. Key Concepts That Define Geography
Pattern—the arrangement of objects on earth’s surface in relationship to one another

6. Key Concepts That Define Geography
Regionalization—the organization of earth’s surface into distinct areas that are viewed as different from other areas
Globalization—the expansion of economic, political, and cultural activities to the point that they reach and have impact on many areas of the world

7. WHAT IS SPATIAL ORGANIZATION? WHY DO SPATIAL PATTERNS OCCUR?
Spatial organization is the location of places, people, and events, and the connections among places and landscapes.
WHAT IS A LANDSCAPE?
Landscape is the overall appearance of an area that is shaped by both human and natural influences.
WHY DO SPATIAL PATTERNS OCCUR?
Geographers believe that the “why of where” is critical!
SPATIAL ORGANIZATION

8. All of these concepts help us to understand the importance of spatial organization.

9. Patterns and places
The “why of where” explains why a spatial pattern occurs.
Specific places become distinct from all other places when patterns occur.
Often these patterns and places combine into regions.
What are regions? Regions are large areas that may be compared to other large areas.
Spatial organization defines human life on earth, with all of its similarities and differences.

10. Geography as a field of study

11. geography…the beginning
Geography as a discipline was first given structure by the Greeks.
Geo means “the earth.”
Graphein means “to write.”
The Greeks laid the foundation for cartography.
Cartography is defined as “the art and science of map-making.”

12. Hecataeus’s Map of the World
Maps around Greece were more accurate than maps of the rest of the world.
The Greeks understood that the earth was round.
Ptolemy, a Greek, estimated that the circumference of the earth was about 16,000 miles. He was about 9,000 miles short of reality, an assumption that led Columbus to believe that he was near Asia when he first landed in the Americas.
Hecataeus’s Map of the World

13. Interest in Geography grew throughout the World
WHO?
Ancient Chinese
Europeans during the Middle Ages
Muslim scholars in the Middle East
Geographers tended to be mostly concerned in practical knowledge of:
Locations
Places
Products

14. The Rebirth of Geography
17th century Europe: Europeans broadly studied both physical landscapes and the roles that humans play in shaping them.
Modern scientific study of geography
Began in Germany
Immanuel Kant
defined geography as the
“study of interrelated spatial
patterns—the description and
explanation of differences and
similarities between one region
and another.”

15. By the Turn of the 20th Century…
Geography became a distinct discipline in European universities.
Many sub-fields of geography started to emerge:
Cultural
Social
Urban
Population
Economic
Political
Today, however, there are two main branches— physical and human geography.

16. What’s the difference? Focused on the natural environment
Physical Geography
Human Geography
Focused on the natural environment
Inextricably linked to the study of human geography
Focused on people
Who are they?
How are they alike and different?
How do they interact?
How do they change the natural landscape and how do they use them?

17. What’s the difference? What are some of the topics studied?
Physical Geography
Human Geography
What are some of the topics studied?
landforms
climate
vegetation
soils
earth’s internal forces
What are some of the topics studied?
culture (folk and popular)
agriculture and rural land use
urban growth
industrialization
demographics (e.g. migration)
politics
economics

18. Some Famous Geographers

19. Eratosthenes Greek scholar 3rd century B.C.E.
Accurately calculated the circumference of earth
Used geometry to conclude the circumference of earth based on the distance between the two cities of Alexandria and Syene and the angle of the sun at each place

20. Ptolemy Greek scholar Lived 500 years after Eratosthenes
Recalculated the circumference of Earth incorrectly (9000 miles short)
His Guide to Geography included many maps
Developed a global grid system that was a forerunner to our modern system of latitude and longitude

21. Idrisi Arab geographer 11th century Directed an academy of geographers
Gathered data
Consulted mariners and travelers
Scientific expeditions
His final map of the world was lost, but many partial maps have survived.

22. George Perkins Marsh American geographer 19th century
Best known for his classic work, Man and Nature (1864)
Focused work on impact of human actions on the natural environment
Well known quote: “Conserve the earth, or live to pay the disastrous consequences.”

23. Carl Sauer Geographer from California 20th century
Argued that cultural landscapes should be the main focus of geographic study
His study is basic to environmental geography.

24. Key Points to Remember from this session…
Concepts that define geography
Location
Space
Scale
Place
Pattern
Regionalization
Globalization
Patterns and places
Spatial organization
The “why of where”
Geography as a field of study
Cartography
Immanuel Kant
Sub-fields of geography
Differences between physical and human geography
Famous geographers
Eratosthenes
Ptolemy
Idrisi
George Perkins Marsh
Carl Sauer

25. Advanced Placement Human Geography
Unit One
Geography: Its Nature
and Perspectives

26. Key Geographical Skills

27. Using Maps to understand Spatial Perspective
Location: Where is it?
Absolute location
Precise position of a place on the globe (e.g. latitude and longitude; other grid systems; street address)
Important historical example: The U.S. Land Ordinance of 1785 (Much of the U.S. was divided into a system of townships to facilitate the sale of land in the West.)

28. Using Maps to understand Spatial Perspective
Absolute location continued…
Meridians and Parallels
Meridian: an arc between the North and South Poles used to measure longitude
The prime meridian is located at the observatory in Greenwich England at 0°.
The meridian at the opposite side of the globe at 180° is called the International Date Line.
Parallel: a circle drawn around the globe that is parallel to the equator; parallels measure latitude
The equator is at 0° latitude.

29. Using Maps to understand Spatial Perspective
Relative location: the location of a place in relation to other human and physical features on the landscape
Compared to absolute location, it is subject to modification. An example is Samarkand.

30. Samarkand
Relative location defines a place in terms of how central or isolated it is in relation to other places.
Central Asia—13th century
Samarkand lay on a major trade route called the Silk Road making the city central to Eurasian trade.
The relative location changed when sea-based trade became faster and more efficient.
Samarkand became a more isolated place.
Absolute location remained the same, but relative location changed.

31. Use of Maps and Map Projections

32. Communications/Education
Use of Maps
Reference Material
Communications/Education
Efficient tools for storing information
Show roads or waterways
Show connections
Used to explain spatial perspectives to others
Thematic
Examples: soil types; economic prosperity; spatial arrangements

33. Example of map used to communicate and educate

34. What is a Map Projection?
Definition: A map projection is a way to represent the round earth on a flat surface.
No map projection is as accurate as a globe!

35. Map Projections and Distortions
Some distortions (inaccuracies) are evident in ALL map projections!
Types of distortion:
Distance
Direction
Shape
Area
Scale

36. Types of Map Projections
Mercator Projection
Designed in 1569 for a specific purpose—to navigate across the Atlantic Ocean between Europe and the Americas
Perfect for “true” direction
Distorts size of areas, particularly close to North and South Poles
Types of Map Projections

37. Types of Map Projections
Robinson Projection
An attempt to balance all distortions by making errors in all four ways: shape, size, distance, and direction
Good projection for general use; often found in classrooms

38. Types of Map Projections
Peters Projection
Introduced by historian and geographer Arno Peters
Focuses on keeping land masses equal in area
Shapes are distorted

39. Contour Maps
Designed to show the nature of local topography (the natural land surface)
Contour lines are drawn to represent a consistent height above sea level.

40. Scale

41. Scale Refers to the size of the unit studied
The phenomena as it exists on different levels, from small to large
Local, regional, or global scales
Example: Mt. St. Helens, Washington (1980)
* The eruption began as an immediate local concern for the immediate area (local scale).
* Ash and volcanic flow eventually affected the region region (regional scale).
* Volcanic matter eventually spread to other areas
of the globe (global scale).

42. Scale
Also refers to the mathematical relationship between the size of an area on a map and its actual size on earth’s surface.
Examples:
Fraction
1/24,000 (translation: 1 inch on the map = 24,000 inches on earth’s surface; both numerator and denominator must be the same unit of measurement)
Ratio
Example: 1:24,000
Note: The unit on the left refers to the distance on the map and the number on the right always refers to the same unit of distance on earth’s surface.

43. Scale Graphic/Bar Scale Verbal/written statement
Safest to use because it will “shrink” or “grow” if the size of the map is altered when photocopied or scanned
Verbal/written statement
Example: 1 inch equals 1 mile
Varies greatly if the size of the map is altered during photocopying or scanning

44. Small Scale maps v. Large Scale Maps
Small scale maps show large areas.

45. Small Scale maps v. Large Scale Maps
Large scale maps show small areas.

46. Local-Global Continuum
We often separate scale into local, regional, and global levels.
In reality, the levels interact in a local-global continuum, in which phenomenon at one level influence those at other levels.

47. Time Zones

48. Time Zones
What is a time zone? A time zone is a region that has adopted the same standard time, usually referred to as the local time.
Because the sun hits the earth at different times as it spins on its axis, time zones are meant to make time more uniform.
Longitude plays an important role in calculating time. The earth is divided into 360 degrees of longitude.

49. Time Zones
Lines of longitude are placed 15° apart, subdividing the earth into 24 sections. Time zones often follow lines of latitude.
Neighboring zones are exactly one hour apart.
Sometimes meridians stray and follow political borders. An example is China (one time zone).

50. Time zones Daylight Savings Time
The clock is pushed ahead one
hour in the spring.
Clock is set back to the original time in the fall.

51. Time zones International Date Line Consequence of world time zones
Satisfies the need for the date to change somewhere on earth
Occurs at 180° longitude
Divides the world from pole to pole through the Pacific Ocean

52. Solar Time Used before adoption of time zones
Based on the position of the sun in the sky as the day progresses
Became problematic once railways and communications connected people in different regions during the 19th century

53. Time Zones in U.S. (set in 1883)
Pacific, Mountain, Central, and Eastern Standard Time Zones

54. Key Points to Remember from this session…
Geographic Skills
Location
Absolute and relative location
Historic examples
Maps and Map Projections
Reference materials
Communication and/or education
Types of map projections
Scale
Definition
Types:
Fraction
Ratio
Graphic/bar
Verbal/written
Small scale v. large scale
Local-global continuum
Time Zones
Purpose
Solar time

55. Advanced Placement Human Geography
Unit One
Geography: Its Nature
and Perspectives
Session 3

56. Interpretation of places and patterns

57. PLACE: The Geographic Term
Place is deceptively complex.
Place describes the unique location of a geographic feature.
Each point on earth is different from all others.
Place may be identified in four ways:
Place name
Site
Situation
Absolute location
PLACE: The Geographic Term

58. Place Names Toponym is another term for a place name.
Humans name places to distinguish them from other places, an action that helps to define the uniqueness of each place.
Examples:
Three Rivers (descriptive)
Medicine Hat—Alberta (history)
New Jersey (historical migration)

59. Site
What is it? Site is the sum of physical and human- transformed characteristics of a place.
Physical site characteristics include:
Climate
Topography
Soil
Water
Resources
Vegetation
Elevation
Humans transform sites to suit their needs so that the sites are part of the human mosaic, not the physical site itself.

60. Situation Situation refers to relative location.
Situation is important in determining the centrality or isolation of a place.
Situation helps us to find an unfamiliar place by comparing its location to a place that we know.

61. Absolute Location Mathematical location
Use of parallels and meridians to determine location
Absolute location is unique for every place on earth.

62. Patterns: The arrangement of things across earth’s surface
● A linear pattern: found along rivers, streets, or railroad tracks

63. Patterns: The arrangement of things across earth’s surface
Centralized Pattern: found in many cities where houses and public buildings may circle around the mosque or house of worship

64. Patterns: The arrangement of things across earth’s surface
Random pattern: no apparent regular distribution

65. Patterns: The arrangement of things across earth’s surface
Rectilinear pattern: reflects a rectangular system of land survey adopted in much of the country under the Land Ordinance of 1785; towns laid out on a grid; checkerboard rural pattern

66. Regions and Regionalization

67. Regionalization: What is it ?
Regionalization is the organization of earth’s surface into distinct areas that are viewed as
different from other areas.
Regionalization: What is it ?

68. Types of Regions Formal regions are also called uniform regions.
Formal regions are similar in terms of one or a few physical or cultural features.
Characteristics may be predominant but not universal.
Examples: a state; an area in which Islam is the predominant religion

69. Types of Regions Functional regions are also called nodal regions.
A functional region has a center that directs movement.
A core area has distinct characteristics when there is movement toward the periphery.
Examples: followers of a baseball team; broadcast area of a radio station

70. Types of Regions
Perceptual Regions
Perceptual regions are also called vernacular regions.
Perceptual regions are places that people believe to exist as part of their cultural identity.
Almost all human beings define their lives by thinking about perceptual regions.

71. Identify these types of regions…
The broadcast area of a local television news station
Functional/nodal
An area in which the majority of people practice Islam
Formal/uniform
Your “hometown”
Perceptual/vernacular
The “Sunbelt”
Regions identified by the U.S. Census Bureau for data collection

72. Interconnections among places

73. Places connect to form patterns. It’s all a matter of scale!

74. Globalization
Globalization is the expansion of economic, political, and cultural activities to the point that they reach and have impact on many areas of the world.
Critics:
Globalization is a threat to regional and local uniqueness.
Proponents:
Local and regional uniqueness show few signs of disappearing.
The world is a web of interconnected places.

75. Interconnectedness Time-space convergence Time-space compression
results from the rapid increase
in the use technology and transportation
in the late 20th century.
Time-space compression
refers to the social and psychological effects of living in a world in which time-space convergence has rapidly reached a high level of intensity.

76. New Geographic Technologies

77. Geographic Information System (GIS)
Captures, stores, analyzes, and displays data
Data may be manipulated to create an image or map that is more accurate than anything drawn by hand
Example:
One layer may show soil composi tion, another may show forest cover, and yet another may show a road system.

78. Global Positioning System (GPS)
Uses a series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers to determine absolute locations on earth
Variety of uses such as mapping vegetation arrangements and even navigating airplanes and ships
Recently used in automobiles to guide drivers

79. How Geographers work: Field and Census Data

80. Geography as a Career Teachers Government workers
Largest employer: U.S. Census
Bureau
Environmental workers
Consultants
Architects
Builders
Politicians
Transportation officials

81. Field-based Skills and Observations
Ability to manipulate and interpret GIS
Ability to use remote sensing data and GPS
Cartography and computer mapping
Data analysis and problem-solving

82. More than anything, geographic skills are based on careful observations of the world at different scales, a curiosity about why objects are where they are, and the desire to see the world through a geographer’s eyes.

83. Key Points to Remember from this session…
Places and Patterns
Toponyms
Site
Situation
Absolute location
Patterns
Linear
Centralized
Random
rectilinear
Regions and Regionalization
Definition
Formal
Functional
Perceptual
Examples of each type
Interconnections
Globalization
Time-space convergence
Time-space compression
Geographic Technologies
GIS
GPS
How Geographers Work
Careers
Field observations

84. Question 1

85. Question 2

86. Question 3

87. Question 4

88. Question 5