1. 8—Information Processing
Slide 1
8—Information Processing
The Information-Processing Approach
Memory
Thinking
Metacognition
Summary

2. The Information-Processing Approach
The approach that focuses on the ways children process information about their world—how they manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

3. The Information-Processing Approach
Processes
Robert Siegler (1998) described three main characteristics of the information-processing approach:
Change Mechanisms
The main focus should be on the role of mechanisms of change in development.
Encoding—The process by which information gets into memory.

4. The Information-Processing Approach
Change Mechanisms (continued)
Automaticity—The ability to process information with little or no effort.
Strategy construction—The process of discovering a new procedure for processing information.

5. The Information-Processing Approach
Processes
Self-Modification
The contemporary information-processing approach argues that children play an active role in their development.
Metacognition—Cognition about cognition, or “knowing about knowing.”

6. The Information-Processing Approach
Comparison with the Cognitive Developmental Approach
Try to identify children’s cognitive capabilities and limits at various points in development.
Seek to describe ways in which children do and do not understand important concepts at different points in life.
Information-processing approach places greater emphasis on the role of processing limitations.

7. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
Discuss the basic ideas in the information-processing approach and compare it with the cognitive developmental approach
Review
What are the key cognitive processes in the information-processing approach?
How is the information-processing approach similar to and different from the cognitive developmental approach?

8. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
In terms of ability to learn, are there ways that a child processes information similar to the way that a computer does? What might be some differences in the way that children and computers process information?

9. Memory What Is Memory? Memory Storage Retrieval
The retention of information over time, involving encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Storage
The retention of information over time.
Retrieval
Taking information out of storage.

10. Memory
Processing Information in Memory
Refer to Figure 8.1

11. Memory Encoding Attention Habituation and Dishabituation
Concentrating and focusing mental resources
Habituation and Dishabituation
Habituation—Repeated presentation of the same stimulus, which causes reduced attention to the stimulus.
Dishabituation—Increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation.

12. Memory Encoding Developmental Changes in Childhood
After the age of 6 or 7, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of the task that are relevant.
A critical skill in paying attention is doing it selectively.
Being able to shift from activity to another when called for is another challenge related to attention.

13. Memory Encoding Rehearsal Deep Processing
The conscious repetition of information over time that increases the length of time that information stays in memory.
Deep Processing
Researchers have found that individuals remember information better when they process it at a deeper level (Hunt & Ellis, 1999).

14. Memory
Habituation and Dishabituation
Refer to Figure 8.2

15. Memory
The Planfulness of Attention
Refer to Figure 8.3

16. Memory Elaboration Constructing Images
Individuals have better memory if they use elaboration in their encoding of information.
Adolescents are more likely to use elaboration spontaneously than children.
Constructing Images
Researchers have found that encouraging children to use imagery to remember verbal information works better for older children than younger children (Schneider & Pressley, 1997).

17. Memory
Verbal Elaboration and Memory
Refer to Figure 8.4

18. Memory
Imagery and Memory of Verbal Information
Refer to Figure 8.5

19. Memory
Organization
If children organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits.
Chunking—grouping information into “higher-order units” is an organization strategy that benefits memory.

20. Memory Storage Memory Time Frames Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory
The memory system that holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant.
Short-Term Memory
The limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer.

21. Memory Memory Time Frames Short-Term Memory (continued)
Working memory—A kind of mental “workbench” where information is manipulated and assembled when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending language.
Long-Term Memory
A type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion

22. Memory Memory’s Contents
Declarative memory is the conscious recollection of information
Procedural memory refers to knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations (Schacter, 2001).

23. Memory
Developmental Changes in Memory Span
Refer to Figure 8.6

24. Memory Cubes Used to Study Mental Rotation Abilities
Refer to Figure 8.7

25. Memory Working Memory Capacity in Normal and Problem Readers
Refer to Figure 8.8

26. Memory Memory’s Contents Declarative and Procedural Memory
Declarative memory is the conscious recollection of information.
Procedural memory refers to knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations (Schacter, 2001).
Episodic and Semantic Memory
Episodic memory is the retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings.
Semantic memory is a child’s general knowledge about the world.

27. Memory Classification of Long-Term Memory’s Contents
Refer to Figure 8.9

28. Memory Content Knowledge and How It Is Represented in Long-Term Memory
Network Theories
Describe how information in memory is organized and connected.
Schema Theories
State that when individuals reconstruct information, they fit it into information that already exists in their minds (Terry, 2003)

29. Memory
Memory for Numbers and Chess Pieces
Refer to Figure 8.10

30. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Retrieval Forgetting
Recall is a memory task in which individuals must retrieve learned information.
Recognition is a memory task in which individuals only have to identify learned information.
Forgetting
Cue-dependent forgetting is retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues.

31. Memory
The Serial Position Effect
Refer to Figure 8.11

32. Memory Personal Trauma and Memory
There is good evidence that memory for traumatic events is usually more accurate than memory for ordinary events (Schacter, 2001).

33. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2
Describe the way that memory works in children
Review
What is memory?
How do children encode information?
How do children store information?
How do children retrieve information, and why do they forget?
How does personal trauma influence memory?

34. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2
What is your earliest memory? Why do you think you remember this particular situation?

35. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2
Suggestibility of Children at Different Grade Levels
Refer to Figure 8.12

36. Thinking What Is Thinking? Thinking
Manipulating and transforming information in memory

37. Thinking Forming Concepts What are Concepts?
Categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.
The Young Child’s Theory of Mind
Theory of mind
Awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others

38. Thinking The Young Child’s Theory of Mind Two to three years of age
Perceptions
Desires
Emotions
Four to five years of age
Children begin to realize that the mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately.

39. Thinking Developmental Changes in False-Belief Performance
Refer to Figure 8.13

40. Thinking Solving Problems Problem solving
Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal.
(1) Find and Frame Problems
Schools need to place more emphasis on encouraging students to identify problems instead of just trying to solve well-defined textbook problems.
(2) Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
Subgoaling—Setting intermediate goals that put one in a better position to reach the final goal or solution.

41. Thinking Solving Problems Algorithms Heuristics Means-end analysis
Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem.
Heuristics
Strategies that can suggest a solution to a problem but don’t guarantee a solution.
Means-end analysis
A heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assesses the current situation, and determines what needs to be done (means) in order to attain the goal.

42. Thinking Solving Problems (3) Evaluate Solutions
(4) Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over time.
Using Rules to Solve Problems
Much of information-processing research on problem solving has been aimed at identifying the rules children use to solve problems.

43. Thinking The Type of Balance Scale Used by Siegler (1976)
Refer to Figure 8.14

44. Thinking Four Rules for Solving the Balance Scale Task
Refer to Figure 8.15

45. Thinking Using Analogies to Solve Problems Infant Imitation
When people encounter new problems, often they interpret them with reference to better-understood, previously encountered ones.
Infant Imitation
One of the most important ways to solve problems is to imitate the actions of more knowledgeable others who are confronted with similar problems (Call, 1995).

46. Thinking Thinking Critically Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence.
Critical-thinking skills:
Open-mindedness.
Intellectual curiosity.
Planning and strategy.
Intellectual carefulness.

47. Thinking Thinking Critically Thinking Scientifically
Reciprocal teaching—A teaching method in which students take turns leading small-group discussions.
Thinking Scientifically
There are important differences in the degree to which children can separate theory and evidence and in their ability to design conclusive experiments (Lehrer, Schauble, & Petrosino, 2002).

48. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3
Explain how children think
Review
What is thinking?
What are concepts? What is theory of mind?
How do children solve problems?
What are some key aspects of children’s ability to think critically?
How do children’s and scientists/ thinking differ?

49. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3
Choose an area in which you feel at least somewhat of an expert. Compare your ability to learn in that field with the ability of a novice.

50. Metacognition Metacognitive knowledge Metacognitive activity
Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts.
Metacognitive activity
Using self-awareness to adapt to and manage strategies during problem solving and thinking.

51. Metacognition Developmental Changes
By 5 or 6 years of age, children usually know that familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar ones.
By fifth grade, students understand that gist recall is easier than verbatim recall.

52. Metacognition Strategies Self-Regulatory Learning
Good thinkers know when and where to use strategies.
Understanding when where to use strategies often results from the learner’s monitoring of the learning situation.
Self-Regulatory Learning
Generating and monitoring thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to reach a goal.

53. Metacognition A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning
Zimmerman, Bonner, and Kovach (1996) developed a model for turning low-self-regulatory students into students who engage in these multistep strategies:
1. Self-evaluation and self monitoring
2. Goal setting and strategic planning
3. Putting a plan into action and monitoring it
4. Monitoring outcomes and refining strategies

54. Metacognition
A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning
Refer to Figure 8.17

55. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4
Summarize developmental changes and processes involved in children’s metacognition
Review
What are some developmental changes that take place in metacognition?
How do children use strategies as part of their metacognition?
What is self-regulatory learning?

56. Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4
How might changes in metacognition be involved in the ability of college students to have better study skills than children?

57. Summary
The Information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
Both the information-processing and cognitive developmental approaches try to identify children’s cognitive capacities and limits at various points in development.

58. Summary Memory is the retention of information over time.
In everyday language, encoding has much in common with attention and learning.
One way that memory varies involves the time frames of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

59. Summary
Many cognitive psychologists accept this hierarchy of long-term memory’s contents:” division into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) subtypes, with declarative memory further subdivided into episodic and semantic memory.

60. Summary
Retrieval is influenced by the serial position effect, how effective retrieval cues are, and the memory task.
Some cases of personal trauma involve post-traumatic stress disorder.
Thinking involves manipulating and transforming information in memory.

61. Summary
Thinking involves manipulating and transforming information in memory.
Concepts are categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.

62. Summary
Four steps in problem solving are (1) finding and framing problems (2) developing good problem-solving strategies, (3) evaluating solutions, and (4) rethinking and redefining problems over time.

63. Summary
Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence.
Children’s thinking shares certain characteristics with scientists but also differs in certain ways.
Metacognition involves both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive activity.

64. Summary
In Pressley’s view, the key to education is helping children learn a rich repertoire of strategies that result in solutions to problems.
Self-regulatory learning consists of the self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to reach a goal.n