1. Awareness Test

2. Eyewitness Reliability
Elizabeth Loftus (Loftus & Palmer 1974)

3. Our data “Contacted” “Smashed” Mean: 29 Median: 30 Mode: 20

4. Misinformation effect
Loftus
After exposure to misinformation subjects remembered an event differently
When repeatedly shown doctored digital pics of themselves in childhood events that never took place 50% of the participants “remembered” the event in detail

5. Source Amnesia Hearing something and recalling seeing it
Recognizing a face but not knowing from where
Not knowing if you dreamed a remembered event or if it really happened
Debra Poole and Stephen Lindsay (1995, 2001, 2002) - Preschoolers and Mr. Science
Kids remembered activities they took part in and some that they only read about as if they had experienced them all directly

6. False Memory vs True False memories feel real
How one feels today influences your memory of how you felt in the past about both issues and personal events

7. Memory Persistence of learning over time 3 elements of memory
Encoding  Storage  Retrieval

8. Sensory memory
Working / Short-term memory
Long-term memory
***automatic processing of some information to LTM

9. Working memory – we focus on new or novel stimuli out of many others – we combine the new with retrieved information to solve problems

10. Figure 7A.4 Automatic versus effortful processing Some information, such as where you ate dinner yesterday, you process automatically. Other information, such as this unit’s concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

11. H. Ebbinghaus, 1850 - 1909 Advocated “rehearsal” to increase retention
“effortful processing makes perfect!”

12. Figure 7A.5 Ebbinghaus’ retention curve Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2. Said simply, the more time we spend learning novel information, the more we retain.
From Baddeley, 1982
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

13. Spacing effect Lean quickly  forget quickly
Instead distribute study time

14. Serial position effect
Primacy vs Recency

15. The testing effect
Roediger and Karpicke – repeated quizzing of studied material helps improve learning, not just assess learning

17. Encoding – effortful Processing

18. Encoding Aids
Imagery
Mnemonic Devices
Method of loci
Peg Word system

19. The One Bun Rhyme Mnemonic The One-Bun Rhyme Mnemonic is a simple technique for remembering up to ten items. The first step is to remember the following rhyme: One is a Bun Two is a Shoe Three is a Tree Four is a Door Five is a Hive Six is Sticks Seven is Heaven Eight is a Gate Nine is Wine Ten is a Hen

20. Visual vs Acoustic vs Semantic
Organization & Memory
Visual vs Acoustic vs Semantic

21. A Hierarchy of Encoding Methods

22. Storage
Sensory Memory
Short-term Memory (STM)
Long-term Memory (LTM)

23. Sensory Memory
Iconic
Echoic
SEIM (sensory, echoic, iconic, memory)

24. Short –term Memory 7 + or – 2 Up to about 30 seconds with rehearsal!
Can be extended longer through using chunking or mnemonic devices

25. Long-term memory
Info in STM must be rehearsed or utilized (effortful processing) in order to go into long –term memory storage
Long-term Potentiation – a tendency for increased synaptic firing with less effort and increased receptor sites after repeated stimulation – this process allows learning and storage /retrieval of memory

26. Synaptic Changes
Figure 7A.13 Doubled receptor sites  Electron microscope images show just one receptor site (gray) reaching toward a sending neuron before long-term potentiation (left) and two sites after LTP (right). A doubling of the receptor sites means that the receiving neuron has increased sensitivity for detecting the presence of the neurotransmitter molecules that may be released by the sending neuron.

27. Figure 7A. 25 When do we forget
Figure 7A.25 When do we forget?  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

28. Memory and emotion
Memories are more easily formed re: emotional events
Stress and hormones trigger glucose which signals brain that something important is happening
Amygdala which processes emotions also boosts activity in hippocampus

29. Where are memories stored?
Hippocampus is involved
Patient HM and Clive Wearing
No single area
“connectionism”
Memories emerge from interconnected neural networks (patterns of activity)

30. Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the hippocampus and fed to other brain regions for storage. Explicit memory
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

31. Procedural Memory or implicit memory
Muscle Memory, repetitive actions & procedures are stored here. Example – driving a car, using a pen, swimming, playing an instrument.

32. Long-term memory E&G Loftus 1980 – some flashbacks are invented
We do not store memories in precise locations
Lasky – 1950 – rats with parts of cerebral cortex removed were still able to remember a maze run

33. The effects of context on memory  Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater; words heard on land are best recalled on land.

34. Figure 7A.18 Forgetting as encoding failure  We cannot remember what we have not encoded.
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

35. Answer The first penny (a) is the real penny.
Figure 7A.19 Test your memory  Which one of these pennies is the real thing?
Answer The first penny (a) is the real penny.
From Nickerson & Adams, 1979
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

36. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Figure 7A.20 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve  After learning lists of nonsense syllables, Ebbinghaus studied how much he retained up to 30 days later. He found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out.
Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

37. Figure 7A.21 The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school  Compared with people just completing a Spanish course, those 3 years out of the course remembered much less. Compared with the 3-year group, however, those who studied Spanish even longer ago did not forget much more.
Adapted from Bahrick, 1984
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

38. Figure 7A.22 Retrieval failure  We store in long-term memory what’s important to us or what we’ve rehearsed. But sometimes even stored information cannot be accessed, which leads to forgetting.
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

39. From Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924
Figure 7A.23 Retroactive interference  More forgetting occurred when a person stayed awake and experienced other new material.
From Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

40. Figure 7A.24 Proactive and retroactive interference
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41. Figure 7A. 25 When do we forget
Figure 7A.25 When do we forget?  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

42. Figure 7A.26 Memory construction  When people who had seen the film of a car accident were later asked a leading question, they recalled a more serious accident than they had witnessed.
From Loftus, 1979
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

43. (a)
(b)
Figure 7A.27 Our assumptions alter our perceptual memories  Researchers showed people faces with computer-blended expressions, such as the angry/happy face in (a), then asked them to explain why the person was either angry or happy. Those asked to explain an “angry” expression later (when sliding a bar on a morphing movie to identify the earlier-seen face) remembered an angrier face, such as the one shown in (b).
© 2010 by Worth Publishers

45. Figure 7A.1 What is this?
© 2010 by Worth Publishers