Download presentation
Presentation is loading. Please wait.
Published byJoseph Stafford Modified over 6 years ago
1
Research Methods It is actually way more exciting than it sounds!!!!
Move op definitions to hypothesis
2
Why do we have to learn this stuff?
Psychology is first and foremost a science. Thus it is based in research. Be aware however of two hurdles that tend to skew our logic when we research
3
Hindsight Bias The tendency to exaggerate that you knew it all along after learning the outcome, Consider findings to be common sense Monday Morning Quarterbacking!!! Example: After Solon loses to Twinsburg, you say “I knew they were going to lose”
4
Hindsight Bias Researchers have found that people with low self-confidence are more susceptible to flattery than those with high self-confidence. Researchers have found that people with high self-confidence are more susceptible to flattery than those with low self-confidence.
5
Overconfidence Overconfidence – tendency to think we know more than we do. 82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in terms of safety. 81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%. (Now that's overconfidence!!!)
6
Overconfidence “There is no reason for anyone to have a computerin their home.” (Ken Olson, president of Digital Equipment Company, 1977) “Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.”(Lord Kelvin, British mathematician, physicist, and president of the British Royal Society, 1895) “Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.”(United Artists executive when asked whether Ronald Reagan should be offered the starring role in the movie The Best Man, 1964) “A severe depression like that of 1920–1921 is outside the range of probability.” (Harvard Economic Society, Weekly Letter, November 16, 1929) “Man will never reach the Moon, regardless of all future scientific advances.” (Lee DeForest, inventor of the vacuum tube, 1957)
7
The Scientific Attitude
Three main components Curious Skeptical Open-minded
8
Critical Thinking Critical Thinking - thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions “Smart thinking” Four elements Examines assumptions Detects hidden values Evaluates evidence Assesses conclusions Empirical Approach
9
Scientific Method Theory – an explanation of behaviors or events that have been observed Often starts as an hypothesis Developed through repeated observation and testing Example: Sleep improves memory Hypothesis – a testable prediction If/Then statement Explains what you expect will happen Example: If sleep deprived, then people will remember less from the day before
10
Hypothesis Practice A researcher is evaluating the effectiveness of a new physical education program for elementary school children. The program is designed to reduce competition. There is some evidence to suggest that participation in class can have an effect on human memory. A researcher plans to use a standardized AP Psych exam to evaluate the effects of class participation.
11
A researcher is evaluating the effectiveness of a new physical education program for elementary school children. The program is designed to reduce competition. If a new physical education program is implemented, then competition will be reduced There is some evidence to suggest that participation in class can have an effect on human memory. A researcher plans to use a standardized AP Psych exam to evaluate the effects of class participation. If students participate in class, then they will score higher on the AP exam
12
Hypothesis Practice Professor Smith wants to study whether or not a person’s performance will increase or decrease on a test in the presence of a group. Participants will be asked to complete as many basketball shots into a hoop in three minutes as possible. One group will have 10 people watching in the same room, the other group will be alone in a room with the experiment watching through a one-way mirror.
13
Operational Definitions
Operational Definition - A statement that tells a person clearly Meaning of hypothesis measure of a variable Must be clear and precise Must be measurable Allow experiment to be replicated Example: Participation The number of times a person raises Their hand in class to answer or ask a Q question about AP Psych content Higher Score - A 4 or 5 on the AP Exam
14
3Types of Research Descriptive Experimental Correlational
To describe behavior Experimental To explain behavior Correlational To predict behavior
15
3 Types of Descriptive Research
The Case Study The Survey Naturalistic Observation
16
Case Studies A detailed picture of one or a few subjects (with similar conditions). Advantages Provides oppty to study unusual cases in depth Offers suggestions for further study Disadvantages Results often can’t be generalized Can’t establish cause and effect Example: The ideal case study was John and Kate. Really interesting, but are they typical of all families
17
Case Study Methodology
Gather data from one person (or small group) through: One on one interviews Observations Testing Primary Resources Health Records School Records
18
Naturalistic Observation
Gather data by watch subjects in their usual/normal environment/public setting Advantages Use when interference by an observer may alter results May be done when it is not ethical to manipulate variables Does not show cause and effect. Example: Jane Goodall’s research on chimpanzees
19
Survey Gather Data – self reported beliefs/attitudes from a large sample representing the population Personal facts Behaviors Attitudes Opinions
20
Survey Method Method: Questionnaire Interview
Can be Descriptive or Correlational Advantages: Use to gather data about a large population maintain anonymity Cheap and fast Disadvantages: Does not prove cause and effect Example: On ave. how many hours do you study per night? What is your grade point ave?
21
Conducting a Survey Population - all the possible subjects in a group you want to study Example: men and women 18-80 Random Sampling – a portion of the population that fairly represents the population because each person has an equal chance of getting chosen Ensures that the participants are representative of the larger population Helps avoid false generalizations Survey must have random sample to be scientific Example: Use of a random computer generator to select 1000 people in the phone book for a survey to be sent to.
22
Survey Method: The Bad Low Response Rate
Response Bias/social desirability bias -respondents answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others (See example left) Wording Effects – subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have a major effect How accurate would a survey be about the frequency of diarrhea?
23
Wording Effects Do you think it is important for America to provide aid to the needy? Should the government allow televised cigarette ads? Do you think it is important for America to provide welfare? Should the government censor cigarette ads?
24
Think Pair Share A researcher wants to investigate people's attitudes toward violence on television. Explain which of the following research methods the researcher should use and why: case study, survey, or naturalistic observation. A researcher wants to investigate sharing behaviors of young children. Explain which research method the researcher would use and why. Provide a brief explanation on how the research would be conducted.
25
Correlational Method Advantages Disadvantages
Correlation - expresses a relationship between two variables. Measures how well one variable predicts the other Advantages Used when ethics prohibit experimentation Can be efficient Can make predictions Can use pre-existing or archival data Disadvantages Make it difficult to assess the impact of a third variable Does not show causation As more ice cream is eaten, more people are murdered. Does ice cream cause murder, or murder cause people to eat ice cream?
26
Eating organic food causes autism.
27
A pirate shortage caused global warming.
28
Results of Correlational Studies
Positive Correlation The variables go in the SAME direction. Negative Correlation The variables go in OPPOSITE directions. Example: Studying and grades hopefully has a positive correlation. Example: Heroin use and grades probably has a negative correlation.
29
Correlation Coefficient
Which is a stronger correlation? -.13 or +.38 -.72 or +.59 -.91 or +.04 Correlation Coefficient - A statistical measure for Correlational Studies that measures the relationship between 2 variables. Range is from -1 to +1 The relationship gets weaker the closer you get to zero. (+) tells you the variables are going in the same direction (-)tells you the variables are going in the opposite direction .
30
Think Pair Share Which of the following would be a negative correlation, and which would be a positive correlation? Education and years in jail Weight and hours of TV watched Education and income Holding babies and crying Food and calories ingested
31
Scatterplot – a visual representation of the relationship between the variables
shown as a graphed cluster of dots
32
Correlation
33
Correlation
34
Correlation
35
The table below lists the scores of eight research participants on a test to measure anxiety, as well as the typical number of cigarettes each person smokes daily. Scores on the anxiety test can range anywhere from a low of 0 (indicating very low anxiety) to a high of 30 (indicating very high anxiety). Research Anxiety Cigarettes Participant Test Score____________ Construct a scatterplot to represent the correlation between smoking and anxiety. Describe the direction of the correlation and give two possible explanations for it.
36
Correlation Illusory Correlations
Perceived non-existent correlation A random coincidence
37
Think Pair Share Speaking at a college graduation ceremony, Professor Robson compared college graduates with adults who are less educated. She correctly noted that college graduates pay more taxes, vote more frequently, engage in more volunteer activities in their communities, and are less likely to go to jail than less-educated adults. The professor concluded that colleges obviously do great things for society. How might you reasonably challenge the way the professor reached her conclusion?
38
Experimental Method Experiment - Manipulation of one or more variables
Advantages: Shows cause and effect Can verify results Can eliminate bias Disadvantage: Time and $ Smoking causes health issues.
39
Population and Sampling
Theory/Hypothesis – always Population – all possible participants in the experiment the group that you can choose your subjects from (all SHS high school students, 5 period S.H. ) This is the group you will generalize your results too Sample – a subset of the population that you will test N = sample size Usually not random, but can be
40
Independent Variable Independent Variable - Whatever is being manipulated in the experiment. What changes in the experiment Levels of IV – the two conditions you are comparing (ie. drug and placebo) Example: Participation If there is a drug in an experiment, the drug is almost always the independent variable.
41
Dependent Variable Score on the AP Exam
Dependent Variable - Whatever is being measured in the experiment. It is dependent on the independent variable. Example: Score on the AP Exam The dependent variable would be the effect of the drug.
42
Hypothesis and Operational Definitions
Study: A scientist wants to study whether people who make more money are happier Identify: Hypothesis Operational Definitions IV DV Study: A scientist wants to study whether or not people who drink become more aggressive. Identify the following: If people make more money then they will be happier Money is defined as > than $70,000/year Happier is defined as greater than 6 on a happiness scale If people drink alcohol, then they will become aggressive Alcohol is defined as 2 or more 4oz alcoholic drinks Aggression is any aggressive act on a checklist ie. Kicking, biting , punching, yelling
43
Assignment Random Assignment
Assigning participants in an experiment to experimental and control groups by chance Each person has an equal chance of being assigned to either group Minimizes any preexisting differences between groups Helps to insure the groups are equivalent Different than Random Sample Experimental Group – the group that’s exposed to the treatment Control Group – the group not exposed to the treatment Examples: Experimental - The group that gets to participate Control group – The group that does not get to participate
44
Beware of Confounding Variables
Confounding Variable - A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect on the experiment Confounds often arise due to differences between the groups that exist before the independent variable is imposed! Examples: motivation, eagerness to please, lifestyle, age, intelligence, experimenter bias, placebo effect (
45
2 important confounding variables
Experimenter Bias - expectations by the experimenter that are subtly communicated to the participants Example: - Experimenter knowing groups & wants his drug to do well Placebo effect – an experimental effect caused by expectations of participants or caused by a substance which the recipient assumes is the independent variable but is not Example: A drug that has no effect is assumed to be the drug that has an effect Placebo effect – demonstrates healing power of positive expectations
46
Double-blind Procedure
Double Blind - Both the researcher and the participants are ignorant about who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving a placebo ( a dummy medication) Minimizes placebo effect and experimenter bias
47
Replication Replication - Repeating the research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. What helps the researcher to insure the study can be replicated?
48
Drawing Conclusions Only in Experiment – variables have been manipulated Must have Random Assignment Results must be Statistically Significant Statistical measure that indicates the results occurred due to the IV and NOT by CHANCE
49
Quasi-experimental Quasi-experimental No random assignment
Used to study differences between: men and women Boys and girls Young and old Confounding variables so no cause and effect
50
Controlled Observation
Controlled Observation - Type of Observational Research Conditions are contrived by researcher Measuring a variable, but no IV Does not show cause and effect Early Psych Research
51
APA Ethical Guidelines for Research
IRB- Internal Review Board Both for humans and animals.
52
Animal Research Clear Purpose Acquired legally Least Suffering
Treated Humanely
53
Human Research Confidentiality No Harm Informed consent Debrief
54
Statistics Recording and analyzing the results from our studies.
Must use a common language so we all know what we are talking about. 2 Types: Descriptive Inferential
55
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics - numbers that summarize a set of data obtained from a sample describes sets of data. Examples: Frequency Distribution (orderly arrangement of scores) –see ex. left Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variance Frequency Polygon Frequency Histogram
56
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode - occurs the most Mean - arithmetic average Median - middle score
57
Central Tendency Median Watch out for extreme scores or outliers.
Mean, Median and Mode. Let’s look at the salaries of the employees at Dunder Mifflen Paper in Scranton: $25,000-Pam $25,000- Kevin $25,000- Angela $100,000- Andy $100,000- Dwight $200,000- Jim $300,000- Michael The median salary looks good at $_______________________ The mean salary also looks good at about $________________ But the mode salary is only $___________________________ 100,000 110,000 25,000 Watch out for extreme scores or outliers. ________________ is a better measure than the mean when there are extremes/outliers Median
58
Normal Distribution In a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are all the same. Examples: Height, Weight, IQ Scores
59
Distributions Outliers skew distributions.
Positive Skew – most scores on the low end Mean is higher than median, so median better measure of central tendency Negative Skew – most scores on the high end Mean is lower than median, so median better measure of central tendency If most students scored well on a test, what would the distribution look like? If most students scored poorly? What does the data tell us?
60
Measures of variability
Range: distance from highest to lowest scores. Standard Deviation: the variance of scores around the mean in the same units as the mean The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distribution is. Do scientists want a big or small SD? Variance - The average of the squared differences from the mean In an experiment the less variable the data is, but in squared units, the more reliable Shaq and Kobe may both score 30 ppg (same mean). But their SDs are very different…meaning?
61
Calculating Standard Deviation
Step 1 – calculate the mean – add all of the raw scores and divide by the # of scores Step 2 – calculate the deviation from the mean by subtracting each of the raw scores from the mean Step 3 – square the deviation from the mean for each score Step 4 – Sum the squared deviations Step 5 – divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of scores and find the square root
62
Calculating the Standard Deviation
63
Calculating the Standard Deviation your turn
Scores – 10, 3, 7, 8, 7 Step 1 – calculate the mean – add the all of the raw scores and divide by the # of scores Step 2 – calculate the deviation from the mean by subtracting each of the raw scores from the mean Step 3 – square the deviation from the mean for each score Step 4 – Sum the squared deviations Step 5 – divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of scores and find the square root 35/5 = 7 10-7 = +3, 3-7 = -4, 7-7 =0, 8-7= +1, 7-7=0 3x3=9, 4x4=16, 0x0=0, 1x1=1, 0x0=0 = 26 26/5 = 2.28
64
Variance Variance - The average of the squared differences from the Mean. = Standard Deviation2 Tells you the same thing as Standard Deviation—how consistent/reliable the data is Example: Standard Deviation = 5 Variance = 25 *if you know the variance, how can you calculate the standard deviation?
65
Scores Z Scores - A unit that measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviations Observation – Mean Standard Deviation = -1 5 Equals 0 at the mean A positive z score = number above the mean, negative z score = number below the mean . Example: If John scored a 72 on a test with a mean of 80 and a standard deviation of 8, John’s z score would be -1
66
Z Scores Jack had an ACT score of 30 and Jill had an SAT score of 690. Which student had the better score? Jack's ACT score was 1.71 standard deviations above the mean ACT score. Jill's SAT score was 1.75 standard deviations above the mean SAT score. Comparing the standard scores, Jill's score of 1.75 is slightly better than Jack's score of 1.71.
67
Normal Distribution What is the probability an observation is less than the z score or more than the z score?
68
Normal Distribution Calculating the probability that scores are above or below the mean Step 1 – calculate the mean Step 2 - calculate/find the standard deviation or variance. If you only have the variance you must calculate the standard deviation Step 3 draw a normal distribution curve and find the scores for each standard deviation from the mean and place them on the graph Step 4: calculating the % of students who scored within a range of scores by finding the corresponding scores on the curve, then add the percentages from each standard deviation.
69
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics – using the properties of the sample data to deduce the properties of the population The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the population Statistical Significance – determines whether the difference in the means of your control group and experimental group occurred because of some fluke/ chance rather than the dependent variable Measured by P-value= .05 5% likely the results are due to chance or 95% confidence level the results are due to the independent variable You can apply the findings to the population What does a p-value= .80 mean? that you are only 20% confident the difference in means is due to the independent variable
70
Statistical Significance Key Ideas
The bigger the difference between groups the less likely it’s due to chance (regardless of sample size) Sample size matters. This is known as the "law of large numbers." The larger the sample size, the smaller an observed difference has to be in order to be statistically significant. The smaller the sample size, the larger an observed difference would have to be in order to be statistically significant. Small sample, small difference not likely to be statistically significant
71
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
Help researches draw conclusions from data Statistical Significance P < .05 Answers: Did the results occur by chance? Did the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable? Should the Hypothesis be supported or rejected? Can I apply my findings to the general population? Descriptive used to describe summarize a data set Make use of averages Mean Median Mode Address dispersion – how widely the individual data points are likely to be from the mean Standard Deviation Variance
72
Practice Mr. Kopkas gave an AP Stats test. The Mean on the test was a 50 with a standard deviation of 12. Kurt scored a 23 on the test. What was his z score? What was the variance on the test? What percentage of students scored between a 38 and 74?
73
Culture Culture – shared ideas, behaviors and attitudes and traditions that are passed from one generation to the next Example: Feelings of loneliness differ across cultures, but in all cultures loneliness is demonstrated by shyness and low self-esteem
74
Milgram’s Study Hypothesis: Population Sample IV DV
If individuals are in the presence of an authority figure, then they will obey the authority Population All Males from New Haven/Yale Area Sample 40 males, ages from New Haven Area IV Proximity of experimenter to teacher Op Def: Experimenter will stand 10’ from teacher in the same room to or speak commands over the phone from a second room DV Level of Shock Op Def: record the maximum level of shock (up to 400 volts) Random Assignment: Not conducted so confounding variables
75
Milgram’s Experiment Criticized for deceiving “teachers” and subjecting them to stress Violating “No Harm” 65% of participants followed the orders to the maximum shock level
76
Milgram’s Experiment Obedience High Obedience Lower
Experimenter in close proximity to “teacher” Learner placed in a different room Experiment associated with prestigious location (Yale) Obedience Lower Experimenter out of the room giving orders over a phone Other “teachers” observed other participants refuse orders Experiment not associated with prestigious location
Similar presentations
© 2025 SlidePlayer.com. Inc.
All rights reserved.