1. Research Methods It is actually way more exciting than it sounds!!!!
Move op definitions to hypothesis

2. Why do we have to learn this stuff?
Psychology is first and foremost a science. Thus it is based in research.
Be aware however of two hurdles that tend to skew our logic when we research

3. Hindsight Bias
The tendency to exaggerate that you knew it all along after learning the outcome,
Consider findings to be common sense
Monday Morning Quarterbacking!!!
Example: After Solon loses to Twinsburg, you say “I knew they were going to lose”

4. Hindsight Bias
Researchers have found that people with low self-confidence are more susceptible to flattery than those with high self-confidence.
Researchers have found that people with high self-confidence are more susceptible to flattery than those with low self-confidence.

5. Overconfidence
Overconfidence – tendency to think we know more than we do.
82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in terms of safety.
81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%. (Now that's overconfidence!!!)

6. Overconfidence
“There is no reason for anyone to have a computerin their home.” (Ken Olson, president of Digital Equipment Company, 1977)
“Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.”(Lord Kelvin, British mathematician, physicist, and president of the British Royal Society, 1895)
“Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.”(United Artists executive when asked whether Ronald Reagan should be offered the starring role in the movie The Best Man, 1964)
“A severe depression like that of 1920–1921 is outside the range of probability.” (Harvard Economic Society, Weekly Letter, November 16, 1929)
“Man will never reach the Moon, regardless of all future scientific advances.” (Lee DeForest, inventor of the vacuum tube, 1957)

7. The Scientific Attitude
Three main components
Curious
Skeptical
Open-minded

8. Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking - thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
“Smart thinking”
Four elements
Examines assumptions
Detects hidden values
Evaluates evidence
Assesses conclusions
Empirical Approach

9. Scientific Method
Theory – an explanation of behaviors or events that have been observed
Often starts as an hypothesis
Developed through repeated observation and testing
Example: Sleep improves memory
Hypothesis – a testable prediction
If/Then statement
Explains what you expect will happen
Example: If sleep deprived, then people will remember less from the day before

10. Hypothesis Practice
A researcher is evaluating the effectiveness of a new physical education program for elementary school children. The program is designed to reduce competition.
There is some evidence to suggest that participation in class can have an effect on human memory. A researcher plans to use a standardized AP Psych exam to evaluate the effects of class participation.

11. A researcher is evaluating the effectiveness of a new physical education program for elementary school children. The program is designed to reduce competition.
If a new physical education program is implemented, then competition will be reduced
There is some evidence to suggest that participation in class can have an effect on human memory. A researcher plans to use a standardized AP Psych exam to evaluate the effects of class participation.
If students participate in class, then they will score higher on the AP exam

12. Hypothesis Practice
Professor Smith wants to study whether or not a person’s performance will increase or decrease on a test in the presence of a group. Participants will be asked to complete as many basketball shots into a hoop in three minutes as possible. One group will have 10 people watching in the same room, the other group will be alone in a room with the experiment watching through a one-way mirror.

13. Operational Definitions
Operational Definition - A statement that tells a person clearly
Meaning of hypothesis
measure of a variable
Must be clear and precise
Must be measurable
Allow experiment to be replicated
Example:
Participation
The number of times a person raises
Their hand in class to answer or ask a
Q question about AP Psych content
Higher Score -
A 4 or 5 on the AP Exam

14. 3Types of Research Descriptive Experimental Correlational
To describe behavior
Experimental
To explain behavior
Correlational
To predict behavior

15. 3 Types of Descriptive Research
The Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation

16. Case Studies
A detailed picture of one or a few subjects (with similar conditions).
Advantages
Provides oppty to study unusual cases in depth
Offers suggestions for further study
Disadvantages
Results often can’t be generalized
Can’t establish cause and effect
Example: The ideal case study was John and Kate. Really interesting, but are they typical of all families

17. Case Study Methodology
Gather data from one person (or small group) through:
One on one interviews
Observations
Testing
Primary Resources
Health Records
School Records

18. Naturalistic Observation
Gather data by watch subjects in their usual/normal environment/public setting
Advantages
Use when interference by an observer may alter results
May be done when it is not ethical to manipulate variables
Does not show cause and effect.
Example: Jane Goodall’s research on chimpanzees

19. Survey
Gather Data – self reported beliefs/attitudes from a large sample representing the population
Personal facts
Behaviors
Attitudes
Opinions

20. Survey Method Method: Questionnaire Interview
Can be Descriptive or Correlational
Advantages:
Use to gather data about a large population
maintain anonymity
Cheap and fast
Disadvantages:
Does not prove cause and effect
Example:
On ave. how many hours do you study per night?
What is your grade point ave?

21. Conducting a Survey
Population - all the possible subjects in a group you want to study
Example: men and women 18-80
Random Sampling – a portion of the population that fairly represents the population because each person has an equal chance of getting chosen
Ensures that the participants are representative of the larger population
Helps avoid false generalizations
Survey must have random sample to be scientific
Example: Use of a random computer generator to select 1000 people in the phone book for a survey to be sent to.

22. Survey Method: The Bad Low Response Rate
Response Bias/social desirability bias -respondents answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others (See example left)
Wording Effects – subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have a major effect
How accurate would a survey be about the frequency of diarrhea?

23. Wording Effects
Do you think it is important for America to provide aid to the needy?
Should the government allow televised cigarette ads?
Do you think it is important for America to provide welfare?
Should the government censor cigarette ads?

24. Think Pair Share
A researcher wants to investigate people's attitudes toward violence on television. Explain which of the following research methods the researcher should use and why: case study, survey, or naturalistic observation.
A researcher wants to investigate sharing behaviors of young children. Explain which research method the researcher would use and why. Provide a brief explanation on how the research would be conducted.

25. Correlational Method Advantages Disadvantages
Correlation - expresses a relationship between two variables.
Measures how well one variable predicts the other
Advantages
Used when ethics prohibit experimentation
Can be efficient
Can make predictions
Can use pre-existing or archival data
Disadvantages
Make it difficult to assess the impact of a third variable
Does not show causation
As more ice cream is eaten, more people are murdered.
Does ice cream cause murder, or murder cause people to eat ice cream?

26. Eating organic food causes autism.

27. A pirate shortage caused global warming.

28. Results of Correlational Studies
Positive Correlation
The variables go in the SAME direction.
Negative Correlation
The variables go in OPPOSITE directions.
Example: Studying and grades hopefully has a positive correlation.
Example: Heroin use and grades probably has a negative correlation.

29. Correlation Coefficient
Which is a stronger correlation?
-.13 or +.38
-.72 or +.59
-.91 or +.04
Correlation Coefficient - A statistical measure for Correlational Studies that measures the relationship between 2 variables.
Range is from -1 to +1
The relationship gets weaker the closer you get to zero.
(+) tells you the variables are going in the same direction
(-)tells you the variables are going in the opposite direction .

30. Think Pair Share
Which of the following would be a negative correlation, and which would be a positive
correlation?
Education and years in jail
Weight and hours of TV watched
Education and income
Holding babies and crying
Food and calories ingested

31. Scatterplot – a visual representation of the relationship between the variables
shown as a graphed cluster of dots

32. Correlation

33. Correlation

34. Correlation

35. The table below lists the scores of eight research participants on a test to measure anxiety, as well as the typical number of cigarettes each person smokes daily. Scores on the anxiety test can range anywhere from a low of 0 (indicating very low anxiety) to a high of 30 (indicating very high anxiety).
Research Anxiety Cigarettes
Participant Test Score____________
Construct a scatterplot to represent the correlation between smoking and anxiety. Describe the direction of the correlation and give two possible explanations for it.

36. Correlation Illusory Correlations
Perceived non-existent correlation
A random coincidence

37. Think Pair Share
Speaking at a college graduation ceremony, Professor Robson compared college graduates with adults who are less educated. She correctly noted that college graduates pay more taxes, vote more frequently, engage in more volunteer activities in their communities, and are less likely to go to jail than less-educated adults. The professor concluded that colleges obviously do great things for society. How might you reasonably challenge the way the professor reached her conclusion?

38. Experimental Method Experiment - Manipulation of one or more variables
Advantages:
Shows cause and effect
Can verify results
Can eliminate bias
Disadvantage: Time and $
Smoking causes health issues.

39. Population and Sampling
Theory/Hypothesis – always
Population – all possible participants in the experiment
the group that you can choose your subjects from (all SHS high school students, 5 period S.H. )
This is the group you will generalize your results too
Sample – a subset of the population that you will test
N = sample size
Usually not random, but can be

40. Independent Variable
Independent Variable - Whatever is being manipulated in the experiment.
What changes in the experiment
Levels of IV – the two conditions you are comparing (ie. drug and placebo)
Example:
Participation
If there is a drug in an experiment, the drug is almost always the independent variable.

41. Dependent Variable Score on the AP Exam
Dependent Variable - Whatever is being measured in the experiment.
It is dependent on the independent variable.
Example:
Score on the AP Exam
The dependent variable would be the effect of the drug.

42. Hypothesis and Operational Definitions
Study: A scientist wants to study whether people who make more money are happier
Identify:
Hypothesis
Operational Definitions IV DV
Study: A scientist wants to study whether or not people who drink become more aggressive. Identify the following:
If people make more money then they will be happier
Money is defined as > than $70,000/year
Happier is defined as greater than 6 on a happiness scale
If people drink alcohol, then they will become aggressive
Alcohol is defined as 2 or more 4oz alcoholic drinks
Aggression is any aggressive act on a checklist ie. Kicking, biting , punching, yelling

43. Assignment Random Assignment
Assigning participants in an experiment to experimental and control groups by chance
Each person has an equal chance of being assigned to either group
Minimizes any preexisting differences between groups
Helps to insure the groups are equivalent
Different than Random Sample
Experimental Group – the group that’s exposed to the treatment
Control Group – the group not exposed to the treatment
Examples:
Experimental - The group that gets to participate
Control group – The group that does not get to participate

44. Beware of Confounding Variables
Confounding Variable - A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect on the experiment
Confounds often arise due to differences between the groups that exist before the independent variable is imposed!
Examples:
motivation, eagerness to please, lifestyle, age, intelligence, experimenter bias, placebo effect (

45. 2 important confounding variables
Experimenter Bias - expectations by the experimenter that are subtly communicated to the participants
Example: - Experimenter knowing groups & wants his drug to do well
Placebo effect – an experimental effect caused by expectations of participants or caused by a substance which the recipient assumes is the independent variable but is not
Example: A drug that has no effect is assumed to be the drug that has an effect
Placebo effect – demonstrates healing power of positive expectations

46. Double-blind Procedure
Double Blind - Both the researcher and the participants are ignorant about who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving a placebo ( a dummy medication)
Minimizes placebo effect and experimenter bias

47. Replication
Replication - Repeating the research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
What helps the researcher to insure the study can be replicated?

48. Drawing Conclusions
Only in Experiment – variables have been manipulated
Must have Random Assignment
Results must be Statistically Significant
Statistical measure that indicates the results occurred due to the IV and NOT by CHANCE

49. Quasi-experimental Quasi-experimental No random assignment
Used to study differences between:
men and women
Boys and girls
Young and old
Confounding variables so no cause and effect

50. Controlled Observation
Controlled Observation - Type of Observational Research
Conditions are contrived by researcher
Measuring a variable, but no IV
Does not show cause and effect
Early Psych Research

51. APA Ethical Guidelines for Research
IRB- Internal Review Board
Both for humans and animals.

52. Animal Research Clear Purpose Acquired legally Least Suffering
Treated Humanely

53. Human Research
Confidentiality
No Harm
Informed consent
Debrief

54. Statistics Recording and analyzing the results from our studies.
Must use a common language so we all know what we are talking about.
2 Types:
Descriptive
Inferential

55. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics - numbers that summarize a set of data obtained from a sample
describes sets of data.
Examples:
Frequency Distribution (orderly arrangement of scores) –see ex. left
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variance
Frequency Polygon
Frequency Histogram

56. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode - occurs the most
Mean - arithmetic average
Median - middle score

57. Central Tendency Median Watch out for extreme scores or outliers.
Mean, Median and Mode.
Let’s look at the salaries of the employees at Dunder Mifflen Paper in Scranton:
$25,000-Pam
$25,000- Kevin
$25,000- Angela
$100,000- Andy
$100,000- Dwight
$200,000- Jim
$300,000- Michael
The median salary looks good at $_______________________
The mean salary also looks good at about $________________
But the mode salary is only $___________________________
100,000
110,000
25,000
Watch out for extreme scores or outliers.
________________ is a better measure than the mean when there are extremes/outliers
Median

58. Normal Distribution
In a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are all the same.
Examples:
Height, Weight, IQ Scores

59. Distributions Outliers skew distributions.
Positive Skew – most scores on the low end
Mean is higher than median, so median better measure of central tendency
Negative Skew – most scores on the high end
Mean is lower than median, so median better measure of central tendency
If most students scored well on a test, what would the distribution look like?
If most students scored poorly?
What does the data tell us?

60. Measures of variability
Range: distance from highest to lowest scores.
Standard Deviation: the variance of scores around the mean in the same units as the mean
The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distribution is.
Do scientists want a big or small SD?
Variance - The average of the squared differences from the mean
In an experiment the less variable the data is, but in squared units, the more reliable
Shaq and Kobe may both score 30 ppg (same mean).
But their SDs are very different…meaning?

61. Calculating Standard Deviation
Step 1 – calculate the mean – add all of the raw scores and divide by the # of scores
Step 2 – calculate the deviation from the mean by subtracting each of the raw scores from the mean
Step 3 – square the deviation from the mean for each score
Step 4 – Sum the squared deviations
Step 5 – divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of scores and find the square root

62. Calculating the Standard Deviation

63. Calculating the Standard Deviation your turn
Scores – 10, 3, 7, 8, 7
Step 1 – calculate the mean – add the all of the raw scores and divide by the # of scores
Step 2 – calculate the deviation from the mean by subtracting each of the raw scores from the mean
Step 3 – square the deviation from the mean for each score
Step 4 – Sum the squared deviations
Step 5 – divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of scores and find the square root
35/5 = 7
10-7 = +3, 3-7 = -4, 7-7 =0,
8-7= +1, 7-7=0
3x3=9, 4x4=16, 0x0=0,
1x1=1, 0x0=0
= 26
26/5 = 2.28

64. Variance
Variance - The average of the squared differences from the Mean.
= Standard Deviation2
Tells you the same thing as Standard Deviation—how consistent/reliable the data is
Example:
Standard Deviation = 5
Variance = 25
*if you know the variance, how can you calculate the standard deviation?

65. Scores
Z Scores - A unit that measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviations
Observation – Mean
Standard Deviation
= -1 5
Equals 0 at the mean
A positive z score = number above the mean, negative z score = number below the mean .
Example: If John scored a 72 on a test with a mean of 80 and a standard deviation of 8, John’s z score would be -1

66. Z Scores
Jack had an ACT score of 30 and Jill had an SAT score of 690. Which student had the better score?
Jack's ACT score was 1.71 standard deviations above the mean ACT score.
Jill's SAT score was 1.75 standard deviations above the mean SAT score. Comparing the standard scores, Jill's score of 1.75 is slightly better than Jack's score of 1.71.

67. Normal Distribution
What is the probability an observation is less than the z score or more than the z score?

68. Normal Distribution
Calculating the probability that scores are above or below the mean
Step 1 – calculate the mean
Step 2 - calculate/find the standard deviation or variance. If you only have the variance you must calculate the standard deviation
Step 3 draw a normal distribution curve and find the scores for each standard deviation from the mean and place them on the graph
Step 4: calculating the % of students who scored within a range of scores by finding the corresponding scores on the curve, then add the percentages from each standard deviation.

69. Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics – using the properties of the sample data to deduce the properties of the population
The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the population
Statistical Significance – determines whether the difference in the means of your control group and experimental group occurred because of some fluke/ chance rather than the dependent variable
Measured by P-value= .05
5% likely the results are due to chance or
95% confidence level the results are due to the independent variable
You can apply the findings to the population
What does a p-value= .80 mean?
that you are only 20% confident the difference in means is due to the independent variable

70. Statistical Significance Key Ideas
The bigger the difference between groups the less likely it’s due to chance (regardless of sample size)
Sample size matters. This is known as the "law of large numbers."
The larger the sample size, the smaller an observed difference has to be in order to be statistically significant.
The smaller the sample size, the larger an observed difference would have to be in order to be statistically significant.
Small sample, small difference not likely to be statistically significant

71. Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
Help researches draw conclusions from data
Statistical Significance
P < .05
Answers:
Did the results occur by chance?
Did the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable?
Should the Hypothesis be supported or rejected?
Can I apply my findings to the general population?
Descriptive
used to describe summarize a data set
Make use of averages
Mean
Median
Mode
Address dispersion – how widely the individual data points are likely to be from the mean
Standard Deviation
Variance

72. Practice
Mr. Kopkas gave an AP Stats test. The Mean on the test was a 50 with a standard deviation of 12. Kurt scored a 23 on the test. What was his z score? What was the variance on the test?
What percentage of students scored between a 38 and 74?

73. Culture
Culture – shared ideas, behaviors and attitudes and traditions that are passed from one generation to the next
Example:
Feelings of loneliness differ across cultures, but in all cultures loneliness is demonstrated by shyness and low self-esteem

74. Milgram’s Study Hypothesis: Population Sample IV DV
If individuals are in the presence of an authority figure, then they will obey the authority
Population
All Males from New Haven/Yale Area
Sample
40 males, ages from New Haven Area IV
Proximity of experimenter to teacher
Op Def: Experimenter will stand 10’ from teacher in the same room to or speak commands over the phone from a second room DV
Level of Shock
Op Def: record the maximum level of shock (up to 400 volts)
Random Assignment: Not conducted so confounding variables

75. Milgram’s Experiment
Criticized for deceiving “teachers” and subjecting them to stress
Violating “No Harm”
65% of participants followed the orders to the maximum shock level

76. Milgram’s Experiment Obedience High Obedience Lower
Experimenter in close proximity to “teacher”
Learner placed in a different room
Experiment associated with prestigious location (Yale)
Obedience Lower
Experimenter out of the room giving orders over a phone
Other “teachers” observed other participants refuse orders
Experiment not associated with prestigious location