1. Types and Systems of Needs
M C Matika
Dept of Psychology
University of Zimbabwe

2. Overview
Learning Objective: To learn about the many systems of needs developed by researchers.
In 1928 Henry Murray, a psychologist detailed a list of 28 psychogenic needs. He argued that everyone has the same basic needs but people differ in their priority ranking of these needs. (Homework- Find out about Murray’s List of Psychogenic Needs!)
Murray’s basic needs include many motives that are assumed to play an important role in consumer behavior such as Acquisition, Achievement, Recognition and Exhibition

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The hierarchy presents five basic levels of human needs which rank in order of importance from lower-level needs to higher-level needs. The theory says that consumers will fill lower-level needs before the higher-level needs (e.g. they will eat before they enroll for a consumer psychology course!.
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4. Needs Hierarchy and Marketing Implications
The needs hierarchy theory has gained wide acceptance in many social disciplines as it appears to reflect inferred motivations of many people in our society.
The five levels appear generic but the problem is that this theory can not be tested empirically.
There is just no way of measuring precisely how satisfied is one level to warrant the higher level need becoming operative.
The need hierarchy theory appears very closely linked to the American culture.

5. Cont. Hierarchy of Needs and Marketing
The hierarchy however offers a highly useful framework for consumer psychologists trying to develop appropriate advertising for their goods and services. It is adaptable in two ways:
i) The marketer can focus their advertising appeals on a need level that is likely to appeal to a large segment of their target audience.
ii) It facilitates product positioning or repositioning. This has to do with how the product should be perceived by prospective consumers through finding a niche-an unsatisfied need that is not occupied by a competing product or brand. For example political parties and their various slogans. How do they appeal to different age groups?

6. To Which of Maslow’s Needs Does This Ad Appeal?
Both Physiological and Social Needs 6

7. To Which of Maslow’s Needs Does This Ad Appeal?
The figure shows an ad for luxury apartment buildings based on a person’s egoistic needs (status and prestige)
The figure shows an ad for luxury apartment building based on person’s egoistic needs (status and prestige)
Ego Needs 7
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8. Power, Affiliation and Achievement.
The Trio of Needs
Many psychologists believe in the trio of needs. These include needs for:
Power, Affiliation and Achievement.

9. Power
Power- relates to the desire individuals have to control their environment (persons and objects).
Many people experience increased self –esteem when they exercise power over people and objects.

10. Affiliation Has far reaching implications for consumer psychology.
People with high affiliation needs tend to be socially dependent on others.
They buy goods which they think will appeal to their friends.
Teenagers do so more for being with others than making a purchase.

11. To Which of the Trio of Needs Does This Ad Appeal?
The Affiliation Needs Of Young, Environmentally Conscious Adults 11

12. Achievement Personal accomplishment is seen as an end in itself.
Such individuals tend to be more self confident and enjoy taking calculated risks, actively research their environments and value feedback.
They take personal responsibility for finding solutions.
Adverts are then pitched to appear to their power and achievement needs and such people are receptive to advertising directed at these needs.

13. To Which of the Trio of Needs Does This Ad Appeal?
Power and Achievement needs

14. Motives
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15. Rational versus Emotional Motives
Rational motives imply that consumers select a brand based on totally objective criteria, such as size, weight, price, or kilometers per liter
Emotional motives imply the selection of a brand according to personal or subjective criteria, such as color, affection, or prestige.
The difference between rational and emotional motives are tied to how consumer’s view marketing variables, including advertisements and pricing adjustments. Furthermore, it must be realized that the definition of emotional vs. rational motivation differs significantly from one consumer to another and in different situations.
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16. Motives
Are made up of three features (Arnold, Robertson and Cooper, 1995):
1. Direction: What a person is aiming to do
2. Effort: How much effort a person is willing to make in order to achieve the desired goal
3. Persistence: How long a person is prepared to try and achieve the goal.

17. Arousal of Motives
A consumer has a variety of needs but only some of them are aroused at any given time and given priority.
Arousal of motives are:
- Physiological arousal (e.g. hunger)
- Emotional arousal (e.g. being frustrated)
- Cognitive arousal (e.g. reading an advertisement)
- Environmental arousal (e.g. hot weather)
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18. Philosophies Concerned with Arousal of Motives
Behavioral School
Behavior is response to stimulus
Elements of conscious thoughts are to be ignored (motivation is a mechanical process that result from a stimulus)
Consumer does not act, but reacts
Cognitive School
Behavior is directed toward goal achievement
Needs and past experiences are consciously reasoned, categorized, and transformed (by consumer’s mind) into attitudes and beliefs that impact consumer’s behavior to attain his specific goal.
There are two opposing philosophies that deal with the arousal of human motives. The behaviorists see motivation as a mechanical process that results from a stimulus – something prompts the behavior and people behave or react. On the other hand, the cognitive school believes that all behavior is directed toward a fulfilling of goals – consumers think through their motives.
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19. Motivational Research
Much of the research done in consumer behavior is based on motivation research.
Motivation research is premised on that consumers are not always aware of their motives
The understanding of consumers’ motives can help marketers make better products, communicate more clearly, and deliver benefits to the consumer.
Much of the research done in consumer behavior is based on motivational research. The understanding of consumers’ motives can help marketers make better products, communicate more clearly, and deliver benefits to the consumer.
This web link will bring you to the homepage for Olson Zaltman Associates. When visiting the website, you can learn more about the ZMET method and the strengths of motivational research.
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20. Measurement of Motives
Researchers rely on a combination of techniques to measure motives
Qualitative research is widely used to uncover consumer motives.
Many qualitative methods are termed projective techniques are often very successful in identifying motives because the consumer must “project” their subconscious or hidden motives onto another stimulus.
Motives are very difficult to identify and measure. This is in part because they are hypothetical and not physical concepts that can be weighed and measured with a ruler. Because they are not tangible, marketers must use a variety of measurement techniques. Because consumers often cannot or will not express their motivations outright, researchers use qualitative research to uncover consumer motives. Many of these qualitative research techniques are called projective techniques because the consumer must “project” their subconscious or hidden motives onto another stimulus. The following slide summarizes some projective techniques.
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21. Qualitative Measures of Motives
METAPHOR ANALYSIS
Uses pictures as a stimulus for the consumer to express their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding a product or brand
DuPont used this method to study women’s emotions regarding pantyhose.
STORYTELLING
This method consists of having customers tell real-life stories regarding their use of the product under study.
Kimberly-Clark used this method to develop pull-ups.
WORD ASSOCIATION AND SENTENCE COMPLETION
In this method, respondents are presented with words, one at a time, and asked to say the first word that comes to mind.
These are three commonly used projective techniques. As you can see, metaphor analysis uses pictures as a stimulus for the consumer to express their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding a product or brand. Storytelling was successfully used by Kimberly-Clark when researching diapers with young mothers. Finally, word association and sentence completion have respondents filling in phrases and matching words quickly to get their genuine responses.
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22. Substitute Goals
Used when a consumer cannot attain a specific goal he/she anticipates will satisfy a need due to a lack of money, ability, desire, or accessibility.
The consumer’s substitute goal is a different goal he expects will reduce his tension created from existence of a need
Substitute goals may actually replace the primary goal over time For instance, if a consumer wanted a certain satellite television service, but it was not available in their area, they might choose an internet television provider. Over time, they may be very satisfied with this choice and feel that they actually prefer the internet television provider over the satellite television service.
It is very common that a consumer can not attain a goal. This may be due to a lack of money, ability, desire, or accessibility. In this instance, the consumer often substitutes a different goal to reduce the tension created from the existence of this need. In time, this substitute goal might replace the initial goal. For instance, if a consumer wanted a certain cable television service, but it was not available in their area, they might choose a satellite television provider. Over time, they may be very satisfied with this choice and feel that they actually prefer the satellite service over the cable television service.
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23. Frustration Failure to achieve a goal may result in frustration.
Some adapt by overcoming the obstacles or setting substitute goals; others adopt defense mechanisms to protect their ego from feelings of inadequacy.
Understanding of these defense mechanisms will help provide many opportunities to craft advertising messages to reach the emotional side of the consumers, alleviating their frustration.
Failure to achieve a goal and the frustration that follows has been experienced by everyone at some time or another. Marketers must realize what consumers’ responses might be and how they can address these responses. Online education exists for those who are too far or do not have the structured time to attend college. The table on the next slide represents several defense mechanisms that consumers might exhibit when they are frustrated about not meeting a goal. The understanding of these defense mechanisms will help provide many opportunities to craft advertising messages to reach the emotional side of the consumers.
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24. Defense Mechanisms- Table 4.2 (excerpt)
Construct
Items
Aggression
In response to frustration, individuals may resort to aggressive behavior
in attempting to protect their self-esteem. The tennis pro
who slams his tennis racket to the ground when disappointed with
his game or the baseball player who physically intimidates an umpire
for his call are examples of such conduct. So are consumer
boycotts of companies or stores.
Rationalization
People sometimes resolve frustration by inventing plausible reasons
for being unable to attain their goals (e.g., not having enough
time to practice) or deciding that the goal is not really worth pursuing
(e.g., how important is it to achieve a high bowling score?).
Regression
An individual may react to a frustrating situation with childish or
immature behavior. A shopper attending a bargain sale, for example,
may fight over merchandise and even rip a garment that another
shopper will not relinquish rather than allow the other
person to have it.
Withdrawal
Frustration may be resolved by simply withdrawing from the situation.
For instance, a person who has difficulty achieving officer
status in an organization may decide he can use his time more
constructively in other activities and simply quit that organization.
Defense mechanisms are used when people cannot cope with frustration. They are often developed to protect one’s ego from feelings of failure when goals are not achieved. Perhaps you can identify a time when you used a defense mechanism when reacting to a difficult situation.
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25. Dynamics of motivation
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26. The Dynamics of Motivation
Needs are never fully satisfied because humans will constantly have them. Hunger is a good example of a need that is often not satisfied and reappears.
New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied (hierarchy of needs)
People who achieve their goals set new and higher goals for themselves. If one sets a goal to enter politics, they may feel they need a law degree. However, if they are unsuccessful in getting accepted at law school, their needs may change and they may want to pursue a few years of work experience first and then need to find a job!!
Motivation is highly dynamic and constantly changes in response to life experiences. Motivations change as we age, interact with others, change careers, acquire wealth, become ill, marry or divorce, or pursue education.
Humans constantly have needs. This is due in part to the fact that our needs are never fully satisfied, or once satisfied, reappear. Hunger is a good example of a need that is often not satisfied and reappears. As humans, we also develop new needs as we satisfy existing needs. The hierarch of effects model shows how we meet our lower-level needs first and then move up the hierarchy. Finally, our needs are based on the goals that we set for ourselves. If one sets a goal to enter politics, they may feel they need a law degree. However, if they are unsuccessful in getting accepted at law school, their needs may change and they may want to pursue a few years of work experience first and need to find a job.
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