1. Plant Propagation

2. Plant propagation... Sexual methods - seed propagation Asexual methods –rooting cuttings –layering; air layering –grafting –specialized structures –tissue culture; micropropagation Sexual methods - seed propagation Asexual methods –rooting cuttings –layering; air layering –grafting –specialized structures –tissue culture; micropropagation “the art and science of multiplying plants by sexual or asexual means.”

3. Asexual propagation... “vegetative reproduction, i.e., multiplication that does not involve the seed cycle - clonal propagation.”

4. Clone... A genetically identical assemblage of individuals produced from a plant entirely by vegetative means. Hartmann and Kester A genetically identical assemblage of individuals produced from a plant entirely by vegetative means. Hartmann and Kester

5. Benefits of clonal propagation... Some plants produce few (if any) viable seeds. Clonal progeny are highly uniform in all characters. Outcrossing plants produce highly variable progeny. Plants may have extended juvenile period. Cloning allows for combining genotypes in one plant. Seeds may have lengthy and complex dormancies. Some plants produce few (if any) viable seeds. Clonal progeny are highly uniform in all characters. Outcrossing plants produce highly variable progeny. Plants may have extended juvenile period. Cloning allows for combining genotypes in one plant. Seeds may have lengthy and complex dormancies.

6. Cutting propagation... Cutting capable of regenerating roots (or shoots) from adventitious meristem. Cuttings defined by size and location on parent plant: –stem tip –nodal –root –leaf Cuttings also defined by condition of growth: –softwood, semihardwood, hardwood Cutting capable of regenerating roots (or shoots) from adventitious meristem. Cuttings defined by size and location on parent plant: –stem tip –nodal –root –leaf Cuttings also defined by condition of growth: –softwood, semihardwood, hardwood

7. Conditions required for rooting cuttings... Hardwood and root cuttings require well drained medium, but little moisture control. Leafy cuttings require high humidity to prevent excessive dehydration: –intermittent mist systems. –poly tents or cold frames. –fog. Medium into which cuttings are stuck must be disease free, well drained, and light. Auxin application now standard treatment. Hardwood and root cuttings require well drained medium, but little moisture control. Leafy cuttings require high humidity to prevent excessive dehydration: –intermittent mist systems. –poly tents or cold frames. –fog. Medium into which cuttings are stuck must be disease free, well drained, and light. Auxin application now standard treatment.

8. Examples of cutting propagation... SpeciesCutting Type African violet, begonialeaf cuttings Many woody shrubsstem tip cuttings (softwood) bramblesroot cuttings Willow, poplarsdormant hardwood cuttings SpeciesCutting Type African violet, begonialeaf cuttings Many woody shrubsstem tip cuttings (softwood) bramblesroot cuttings Willow, poplarsdormant hardwood cuttings

9. Grafting and budding... Can graft scion cultivar onto size controlling rootstock. Many difficult to root plants are graft compatible. Grafting defined by season and type of tissue. –budding (T-budding, inverted T, patch) –wedge, veneer, whip and tongue, cleft, etc. Scion cultivar may be changed on mature trees (top working) Can graft scion cultivar onto size controlling rootstock. Many difficult to root plants are graft compatible. Grafting defined by season and type of tissue. –budding (T-budding, inverted T, patch) –wedge, veneer, whip and tongue, cleft, etc. Scion cultivar may be changed on mature trees (top working) “The vascular cambium can regenerate the vascular connections between the scion and rootstock resulting in a complete plant composed of more than one genotype.”

10. Grafted and budded plants... SpeciesGraft/bud Type appleschip, T-bud, cleft conifersside veneer pecanspatch rosesT-bud (shield) grapesmodified wedge SpeciesGraft/bud Type appleschip, T-bud, cleft conifersside veneer pecanspatch rosesT-bud (shield) grapesmodified wedge

11. Layering... Air layering - interrupt cambium and cover wound with moistened medium.Ficus elastica, Magnolia Simple layering - low hanging branch covered with soil (with or without wounding) - many shrubs Tip layering - tips of plants (brambles) at certain times of year (rat-tail condition) develop roots where they touch the soilBlackberries, raspberries Mound layering - soil mounded to cover base of specially pruned young tree (also referred to as stool layering)Apple rootstocks Air layering - interrupt cambium and cover wound with moistened medium.Ficus elastica, Magnolia Simple layering - low hanging branch covered with soil (with or without wounding) - many shrubs Tip layering - tips of plants (brambles) at certain times of year (rat-tail condition) develop roots where they touch the soilBlackberries, raspberries Mound layering - soil mounded to cover base of specially pruned young tree (also referred to as stool layering)Apple rootstocks “Layering involves inducing roots on an intact (or nearly so) plant.”

12. Air Layering

13. Specialized Structures Modified Stems bulb, corm, tuber, rhizome pseudobulb, runner Modified Roots tuberous root Specialized Structures Modified Stems bulb, corm, tuber, rhizome pseudobulb, runner Modified Roots tuberous root

14. Propagation by specialized structures... SpeciesStructure tulip, onion, Easter lilybulb potato, Jerusalem artichoketuber Iris, lily-of-the valleyrhizome Gladiolus, Crocuscorm strawberry, Ajugarunner Dahlia, sweet potatotuberous root SpeciesStructure tulip, onion, Easter lilybulb potato, Jerusalem artichoketuber Iris, lily-of-the valleyrhizome Gladiolus, Crocuscorm strawberry, Ajugarunner Dahlia, sweet potatotuberous root

15. Apomixis... “the development of an embryo within a seed or flowering structure from a source other than the egg, resulting in the formation of an embryo (sometimes in addition to the sexual embryo) that is a clone of the maternal parent. Examples include polyembryony in citrus and crabapples, and the formation of bulbils in garlic.” “an exception to the rule of nonclonal embryony.”

16. Micropropagation... Micropropagation is rapid, continuous, and efficient. Specialized equipment, facilities, and technically trained personnel are required. Steps can be taken to obtain and maintain certified pest- free plants. Cost effective if large numbers of a given clone are produced. Widely used for orchids, ferns, many interior foliage plants, rootstocks, etc. Micropropagation is rapid, continuous, and efficient. Specialized equipment, facilities, and technically trained personnel are required. Steps can be taken to obtain and maintain certified pest- free plants. Cost effective if large numbers of a given clone are produced. Widely used for orchids, ferns, many interior foliage plants, rootstocks, etc. “Micropropagation has many synonyms - tissue culture, mass propagation, in vitro culture, cloning.”

17. Plants amenable to micropropagation... Flowering pot plants - Begonia, African violets, orchids Interior foliage plants - ferns, Syngonium, Ficus, Diffenbachia Woody ornamentals - red maples, Rhododendrons, Nandina Forest trees - Poplar, birch, loblolly pine Fruit trees - apple, cherry, pear (many rootstocks) Vegetable crops - potato, celery, tomato, onion (male sterile) Plantation crops - banana, date palm, coffee Flowering pot plants - Begonia, African violets, orchids Interior foliage plants - ferns, Syngonium, Ficus, Diffenbachia Woody ornamentals - red maples, Rhododendrons, Nandina Forest trees - Poplar, birch, loblolly pine Fruit trees - apple, cherry, pear (many rootstocks) Vegetable crops - potato, celery, tomato, onion (male sterile) Plantation crops - banana, date palm, coffee

18. Types of development in vitro... Proliferation of axillary buds from shoot tip cultures. Differentiation of adventitious shoots from leaves, stems, or roots. Formation and proliferation of somatic embryos. Seed germination - orchids. Development of haploid plants from anthers or ovules. Protoplast fusion and somatic hybrid development. Proliferation of axillary buds from shoot tip cultures. Differentiation of adventitious shoots from leaves, stems, or roots. Formation and proliferation of somatic embryos. Seed germination - orchids. Development of haploid plants from anthers or ovules. Protoplast fusion and somatic hybrid development.

19. Propagation by seeds... Seeds are widely available, inexpensive, and easy to handle. Hybrid seeds are more expensive, but may have production benefits that offset the cost. Large scale agriculture (including vegetable crop production) is dependent upon seed propagation. Seeds (especially seeds of woody plants) may have complex dormancies that impede germination. Seeds are widely available, inexpensive, and easy to handle. Hybrid seeds are more expensive, but may have production benefits that offset the cost. Large scale agriculture (including vegetable crop production) is dependent upon seed propagation. Seeds (especially seeds of woody plants) may have complex dormancies that impede germination. “Propagation by seeds is the major method by which plants reproduce in nature and one of the most efficient and widely used propagation methods for cultivated crops.” Hartmann and Kester “Propagation by seeds is the major method by which plants reproduce in nature and one of the most efficient and widely used propagation methods for cultivated crops.” Hartmann and Kester