1. Chapter One
Introduction: The Context for Assessment in Schools and Current Assessment Practices

2. Assessment
Assessment refers to the gathering of information to help an individual make decisions.
Monitoring student progress involves comparing a student’s performance to predetermined expectations of performance (charted as an aim line).
For students not meeting expectations, interventions are designed, implemented, and evaluated.
Assessment is not synonymous with testing. Unlike assessment, a test is a measurement device or technique used to quantify behavior.

3. Assessment
Assessment refers to the gathering of information to help an individual make decisions.
Monitoring student progress involves comparing a student’s performance to predetermined expectations of performance (charted as an aim line).
For students not meeting expectations, interventions are designed, implemented, and evaluated.
Assessment is not synonymous with testing. Unlike assessment, a test is a measurement device or technique used to quantify behavior.

4. Educational, historical events and philosophical movements frame the discipline of assessment.
United States- 20th Century
China BC
Individual Differences
1859-Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin
Much of the major developments in testing occurred in this century, many in the United States. However, testing’s origins date back to China which had a relatively sophisticated civil service testing program more than 4000 years ago. Oral tests were administered every three years to determine evaluations and make promotional decisions.
The Western world most likely learned about testing from the Chinese.
The most basic concept underlying testing is the notion of individual differences. No two snowflakes are alike, similarly fingerprints, and of course individuals. But quantifying these differences was another matter.
Darwin described the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, higher levels of life arose because of individual differences, the result of more successful adaptation to one’s environment.

5. Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold.
1883-Sir Francis Galton attempted to begin to quantify these differences.
1890 US psychologist James Catell coined the term mental test, and extended the work of Galton.
Hebart- Mathematical models.
Weber- Psychological threshold.
Psychological testing developed from these two lines of inquiry.
He set out to show that some individuals possessed characteristics that made them more fit than others. His worked concentrated on sensory and motor functioning.
Hebart used mathematical models to unlock the mysteries of human consciousness.
Weber attempted to demonstrate the existence of a psychological threshold- the minimum stimulus needed to activate a sensory system.

6. Educational, historical events and philosophical movements frame the discipline of assessment.
United States- 20th Century
China BC
Individual Differences
1859-Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin
Much of the major developments in testing occurred in this century, many in the United States. However, testing’s origins date back to China which had a relatively sophisticated civil service testing program more than 4000 years ago. Oral tests were administered every three years to determine evaluations and make promotional decisions.
The Western world most likely learned about testing from the Chinese.
The most basic concept underlying testing is the notion of individual differences. No two snowflakes are alike, similarly fingerprints, and of course individuals. But quantifying these differences was another matter.
Darwin described the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, higher levels of life arose because of individual differences, the result of more successful adaptation to one’s environment.

7. Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold.
1883-Sir Francis Galton attempted to begin to quantify these differences.
1890 US psychologist James Catell coined the term mental test, and extended the work of Galton.
Hebart- Mathematical models.
Weber- Psychological threshold.
Psychological testing developed from these two lines of inquiry.
He set out to show that some individuals possessed characteristics that made them more fit than others. His worked concentrated on sensory and motor functioning.
Hebart used mathematical models to unlock the mysteries of human consciousness.
Weber attempted to demonstrate the existence of a psychological threshold- the minimum stimulus needed to activate a sensory system.

8. Introduction Student diversity Expectations for schools
Excellence & equity
Role of assessment

9. Assessment Defined
Assessment: a process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students or schools.
Uses for assessment information

10. The Importance of Assessment in School and Society
Assessment affects everybody
Reactions to positive assessment outcomes
Reactions to negative assessment outcomes

11. Types of Assessment Decisions Made by Educators
Discrepancies– Expectation v. Performance
Decisions Made Using Assessment Information

12. Assessment Decisions, cont.
Screening Decisions: Are There Unrecognized Problems?
Progress Monitoring Decisions: Is the Student Making Adequate Progress?
Monitoring Progress Toward Individual Goals
Monitoring Progress Toward State Standards

13. Assessment Decisions, cont.
Instructional Planning and Modification Decisions: What Can We Do to Enhance Competence and Build Capacity, and How Can We Do It?
What to teach
How to teach it
What expectations are realistic

14. Assessment Decisions, cont.
Resource Allocation Decisions: Are Additional Resources Necessary?
Increased services for students
Change and increased capacity for schools

15. Assessment Decisions, cont.
Eligibility for Special Education Services Decisions: Is the Student Eligible for Special Education and Related Services?
Students must have:
Diagnosed disabilities
Need for special education services to achieve educational outcomes

16. Assessment Decisions, cont.
Program Evaluation: Are Instructional Programs Effective?
Comparing approaches
Accountability Decisions: Does What We Do Lead to Desired Outcomes?
NCLB
AYP

17. Important Things to Think About as You Read and Study This Textbook
The Type of Decision Determines the Type of Information Needed
Focus on Alterable Behaviors

18. Important Things, cont. Assess Instruction Before Assessing Learners
Assessing Instruction
Instructional Challenge
Instructional Environment
Classroom Management
Learning Management
Assessing Learners

19. Important Things, cont. Assessment Is Broader Than Testing
Observations
Recollections
Tests
Professional Judgments
Assessments Have Consequences
Concerns of the General Public
Concerns of Certification Boards

20. Important Things, cont. Not All Assessments Are Equal
Tests are samples of behavior
Reliability & validity
Assessment Practices Are Dynamic

21. Important Considerations as You Prepare to Learn About Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education in Today’s School
Why Learn About Assessment?
Good News: Significant Improvements in Assessment Have Happened and Continue to Happen.

22. Legal and Ethical Considerations in Assessment
Chapter Two
Legal and Ethical Considerations in Assessment

23. Introduction
Our current practice of assessment has been significantly affected by:
Federal laws
IEPs
Performance reports
Court rulings
Professional standards & ethics
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24. Laws Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Employment of people with disabilities
Education of people with disabilities
Used to get services for students with conditions not listed in the disabilities education legislation
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25. Laws, cont.
Major Assessment Provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
The Individualized Education Program Provisions
A specification of individual goals, procedures for delivering the instructional program, & procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of the program
Multidisciplinary child study team
Parental approval for the IEP
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All Rights Reserved.

26. Laws, cont. Assessment Provisions of IDEA cont.
Protection in Evaluation Procedures Provisions
Fair, equitable, & nondiscriminatory testing
Least Restrictive Appropriate Environment
That setting on the “cascade of alternatives” most nearly like the regular class
The least restrictive setting in which the student can be successful
Due Process Provisions
Rights of parents & guardians
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27. Cascade of Alternative Placements (Often called “Deno’s Cascade”)
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28. Note on Least Restrictive Environment
The right to placement in the regular class or in that setting most like the regular class
The child is to be placed in that environment in which s/he can be successful.
Dual concept of placement in that setting closest to regular class and in which the student can be successful
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29. Laws, cont. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
States set educational standards & objectives
Annual testing for grade 3-8
Parents have option to transfer students out of failing schools
K-3 reading interventions
Evidence-based instruction
Accountable for all students
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30. Laws, cont. 2004 Reauthorization of IDEA
Implications for assessment of students with disabilities
New alternative assessment approaches may be used to decide whether students are learning disabled
Significant discrepancy between ability & achievement
Failure to respond to evidence-based interventions
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31. Ethical Considerations
Beneficence
Always practice in the best interests of the students (do no harm).
Recognition of the Boundaries of Professional Competence
Respect for the Dignity of Persons
Privacy and Confidentiality of Information
Fairness and Nondiscrimination in Assessment
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32. Ethical Considerations, cont.
Adherence to Professional Standards on Assessment
Test Security
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All Rights Reserved.