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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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An Introduction to Joints
Articulations Body movement occurs at joints (articulations) where two bones connect Joint Structure Determines direction and distance of movement (range of motion or ROM) Joint strength decreases as mobility increases © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Two Methods of Classification Functional classification is based on range of motion of the joint Structural classification relies on the anatomical organization of the joint © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Functional Classifications Synarthrosis (immovable joint) Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joint) Diarthrosis (freely movable joint) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Structural Classifications Bony Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Table 9-1 Functional and Structural Classifications of Joints (Part 1 of 3).
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Table 9-1 Functional and Structural Classifications of Joints (Part 2 of 3).
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Table 9-1 Functional and Structural Classifications of Joints (Part 3 of 3).
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synarthroses (Immovable Joints) Are very strong Edges of bones may touch or interlock Four types of synarthrotic joints Suture Gomphosis Synchondrosis Synostosis © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Suture Bones interlocked Are bound by dense fibrous connective tissue Are found only in skull Gomphosis Fibrous connection (periodontal ligament) Binds teeth to sockets © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synchondrosis Is a rigid cartilaginous bridge between two bones Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones Between vertebrosternal ribs and sternum Synostosis Fused bones, immovable Metopic suture of skull Epiphyseal lines of long bones © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Amphiarthroses More movable than synarthrosis Stronger than freely movable joint Two types of amphiarthroses Syndesmosis Bones connected by ligaments Symphysis Bones separated by fibrocartilage © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synovial Joints (Diarthroses) Also called movable joints At ends of long bones Within articular capsules Lined with synovial membrane © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Articular Cartilages
Pad articulating surfaces within articular capsules Prevent bones from touching Smooth surfaces lubricated by synovial fluid Reduce friction © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Synovial Fluid
Contains slippery proteoglycans secreted by fibroblasts Functions of synovial fluid Lubrication Nutrient distribution Shock absorption © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Accessory Structures Cartilages Fat pads Ligaments
Tendons Bursae © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Cartilages Fat Pads Ligaments Cushion the joint
Fibrocartilage pad called a meniscus (or articular disc; plural, menisci) Fat Pads Superficial to the joint capsule Protect articular cartilages Ligaments Support, strengthen joints Sprain – ligaments with torn collagen fibers © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Tendons Bursae Attach to muscles around joint
Help support joint Bursae Singular, bursa, a pouch Pockets of synovial fluid Cushion areas where tendons or ligaments rub © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-2 Synovial Joints Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints
Prevent injury by limiting range of motion Collagen fibers (joint capsule, ligaments) Articulating surfaces and menisci Other bones, muscles, or fat pads Tendons of articulating bones © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-1a The Structure of a Synovial Joint.
Medullary cavity Spongy bone Periosteum Components of Synovial Joints Joint capsule Synovial membrane Articular cartilages Joint cavity containing synovial fluid Metaphysis Compact bone a Synovial joint, sagittal section
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Figure 9-1b The Structure of a Synovial Joint.
Quadriceps tendon Patella Accessory Structures of a Knee Joint Joint capsule Femur Synovial membrane Bursa Fat pad Joint cavity Articular cartilage Meniscus Ligaments Tibia Extracapsular ligament (patellar) Intracapsular ligament (cruciate) b Knee joint, sagittal section
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9-2 Synovial Joints Injuries Dislocation (luxation) Subluxation
Articulating surfaces forced out of position Damages articular cartilage, ligaments, joint capsule Subluxation A partial dislocation © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-3 Movements Three Types of Dynamic Motion
Linear movement (gliding) Angular movement Rotation Planes (Axes) of Dynamic Motion Monaxial (1 axis) Biaxial (2 axes) Triaxial (3 axes) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 1 of 12).
SIMPLE MODEL OF ARTICULAR MOTION Take a pencil as your model and stand it upright on the surface of a desk. The pencil represents a bone, and the desk is an articular surface. A lot of twisting, pushing, and pulling will demonstrate that there are only three ways to move the pencil.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 2 of 12).
Moving the Point Linear motion Possible movement 1 shows the pencil can move. If you hold the pencil upright, without securing the point, you can push the pencil across the surface. This kind of motion is called gliding. You could slide the point forward or backward, from side to side, or diagonally.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 3 of 12).
Changing the Shaft Angle Angular motion Possible movement 2 shows the pencil shaft can change its angle with the surface. With the tip held in position, you can move the eraser end of the pencil forward and backward, from side to side, or at some intermediate angle.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 4 of 12).
Changing the Shaft Angle Circumduction Possible movement 3 shows a complex angular movement. Grasp the pencil eraser and move the pencil in any direction until it is no longer vertical. Now, swing the eraser through a complete circle in a movement called circumduction.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 5 of 12).
Rotating the Shaft Rotation Possible movement 4 shows that the pencil shaft can rotate. If you keep the shaft vertical and the point at one location, you can still spin the pencil around its longitudinal axis in a movement called rotation. No joint can freely rotate because this would tangle blood vessels, nerves, and muscles as they crossed the joint.
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Terms describe:
Plane or direction of motion Relationship between structures © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Gliding movement
Two surfaces slide past each other Between carpal or tarsal bones © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Flexion Extension Angular motion
Anterior–posterior plane Reduces angle between elements Extension Increases angle between elements © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Hyperextension Angular motion
Extension past anatomical position © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-3a Angular Movements.
Extension Flexion Hyperextension Flexion Flexion Hyper- extension Extension Extension Flexion Hyperextension Extension a Flexion/extension
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Abduction Adduction Angular motion
Frontal plane Moves away from longitudinal axis Adduction Moves toward longitudinal axis © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-3b Angular Movements.
Abduction Abduction Adduction Adduction Abduction Adduction Abduction Adduction b Abduction/adduction
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Figure 9-3c Angular Movements.
Adduction Abduction c Adduction/abduction
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Circumduction
Circular motion without rotation Angular motion © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-3d Angular Movements.
Circumduction
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Rotation
Direction of rotation from anatomical position Relative to longitudinal axis of body Left or right rotation Medial rotation (inward rotation) Rotates toward axis Lateral rotation (outward rotation) Rotates away from axis © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-4a Rotational Movements.
Head rotation Right rotation Left rotation Lateral (external) rotation Medial (internal) rotation a
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9-3 Movements Types of Movements at Synovial Joints Rotation Pronation
Rotates forearm, radius over ulna Supination Forearm in anatomical position © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-4b Rotational Movements.
Supination Pronation b Supination Pronation
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Inversion Eversion Dorsiflexion
Twists sole of foot medially Eversion Twists sole of foot laterally Dorsiflexion Flexion at ankle (lifting toes) Plantar flexion Extension at ankle (pointing toes) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 1 of 6).
Eversion Inversion
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 2 of 6).
Dorsiflexion (ankle flexion) Plantar flexion (ankle extension)
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Opposition Reposition Protraction
Thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping) Reposition Opposite of opposition Protraction Moves anteriorly In the horizontal plane (pushing forward) Retraction Opposite of protraction Moving anteriorly (pulling back) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 3 of 6).
Opposition
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 4 of 6).
Retraction Protraction
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Elevation Depression Lateral flexion
Moves in superior direction (up) Depression Moves in inferior direction (down) Lateral flexion Bends vertebral column from side to side © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 5 of 6).
Depression Elevation
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Figure 9-5 Special Movements (Part 6 of 6).
Lateral flexion
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9-3 Movements Functional Classification of Synovial Joints Gliding
Hinge Pivot Condylar Saddle Ball-and-socket © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-3 Movements Gliding Joints Hinge Joints Condylar Joints
Flattened or slightly curved faces Limited motion (nonaxial) Hinge Joints Angular motion in a single plane (monaxial) Condylar Joints Oval articular face within a depression Motion in two planes (biaxial) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 7 of 12).
Gliding. Slight nonaxial or multiaxial Gliding joint Gliding joints, or plane joints, have flattened or slightly curved surfaces that slide across one another, but the amount of movement is very slight. Clavicle Manubrium
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 8 of 12).
Angular. Monaxial Examples: Elbow joint Knee joint Ankle joint Interphalangeal joint Hinge joint Hinge joints permit angular motion in a single plane, like the opening and closing of a door. Humerus Ulna
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 9 of 12).
Angular. Biaxial Examples: Radiocarpal joint Metacarpophalangeal joints 2–5 Metatarsophalangeal joint Condylar joint Condylar joints, or ellipsoidal joints, have an oval articular face nestled within a depression on the opposing surface. Scaphoid bone Radius Ulna
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9-3 Movements Saddle Joints Pivot Joints Ball-and-Socket Joints
Two concave, straddled (biaxial) Pivot Joints Rotation only (monaxial) Ball-and-Socket Joints Round articular face in a depression (triaxial) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 10 of 12).
Angular. Biaxial Examples: First carpometacarpal joint Saddle joint Saddle joints have complex articular faces and fit together like a rider in a saddle. Each face is concave along one axis and convex along the other. III II Metacarpal bone of thumb Trapezium
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 11 of 12).
Rotation. Monaxial Examples: Atlantoaxial joint Proximal radioulnar joint Pivot joint Pivot joints only permit rotation. Atlas Axis
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Figure 9-2 Joint Movement (Part 12 of 12).
Angular, circumduction, and rotation. Triaxial Examples: Shoulder joint Hip joint Ball-and-socket joint In a ball-and-socket joint, the round head of one bone rests within a cup-shaped depression in another. Scapula Humerus
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9-3 Movements Joints A joint cannot be both mobile and strong
The greater the mobility, the weaker the joint Mobile joints are supported by muscles and ligaments, not bone-to-bone connections © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-4 Intervertebral Joints
C2 to L5 spinal vertebrae articulate: At inferior and superior articular processes (gliding joints) Between adjacent vertebral bodies (symphyseal joints) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-4 Intervertebral Joints
Intervertebral Discs Pads of fibrocartilage Separate vertebral bodies Anulus fibrosus Tough outer layer Attaches disc to vertebrae Nucleus pulposus Elastic, gelatinous core Absorbs shocks © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-4 Intervertebral Joints
Damage to Intervertebral Discs Slipped disc Bulge in anulus fibrosus Invades vertebral canal Herniated disc Nucleus pulposus breaks through anulus fibrosus Presses on spinal cord or nerves © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Clinical Note 9-1a Damage to Intervertebral Discs.
Normal intervertebral disc L1 Bulging disc L2 a A lateral view of the lumbar region of the spinal column, showing a bulging intervertebral disc
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Clinical Note 9-1b Damage to Intervertebral Discs.
Compressed area of spinal nerve Spinal nerve Spinal cord Nucleus pulposus of herniated disc Anulus fibrosus b A sectional view through a herniated disc, showing the release of the nucleus pulposus and its effect on the spinal cord and adjacent spinal nerves
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9-4 Intervertebral Joints
Movements of the Vertebral Column Flexion Extension Lateral flexion Rotation © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Table 9-2 Joints of the Axial Skeleton (Part 1 of 3).
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Table 9-2 Joints of the Axial Skeleton (Part 2 of 3).
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Table 9-2 Joints of the Axial Skeleton (Part 3 of 3).
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint The Shoulder Joint
Also called the glenohumeral joint Allows more motion than any other joint Is the least stable Supported by skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments Ball-and-socket diarthrosis Between head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Socket of the Shoulder Joint Glenoid labrum
Deepens socket of glenoid cavity Fibrocartilage lining Extends past the bone © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Processes of the Shoulder Joint
Acromion (clavicle) and coracoid process (scapula) Project laterally, superior to the humerus Help stabilize the joint © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Ligaments Shoulder Separation
Glenohumeral Coracohumeral Coracoacromial Coracoclavicular Acromioclavicular Shoulder Separation Dislocation of the shoulder joint © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Muscles (Rotator Cuff) Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus Subscapularis Teres minor © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Bursae Subacromial Subcoracoid
Subdeltoid Subscapular © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-7a The Shoulder Joint.
Acromioclavicular ligament Coracoacromial ligament Coracoclavicular ligaments Tendon of supraspinatus muscle Clavicle Acromion Articular capsule Coracoid process Subdeltoid bursa Scapula Synovial membrane Articular cartilages Humerus Joint cavity Glenoid labrum Articular capsule a Anterior view, frontal section
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Figure 9-7b The Shoulder Joint.
Ligaments Stabilizing the Shoulder Joint Subcoracoid bursa Tendon of biceps brachii muscle Clavicle Acromioclavicular ligament Subacromial bursa Coracoclavicular ligaments Muscles and Tendons of the Rotator Cuff Acromion Coracoacromial ligament Tendon of supraspinatus muscle Coracohumeral ligament (cut) Glenohumeral ligaments Tendon of infraspinatus muscle Subscapular bursa Teres minor muscle Glenoid cavity Glenoid labrum Subscapularis muscle Articular capsule Scapula b Lateral view of pectoral girdle
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9-5 The Elbow Joint The Elbow Joint A stable hinge joint
With articulations involving humerus, radius, and ulna © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Joints of the Elbow Humeroulnar joint
Largest joint Trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna Limited movement © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Joints of the Elbow Humeroradial joint
Smaller joint Capitulum of humerus and head of radius © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-8a The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments.
Humerus Radial collateral ligament Radial tuberosity Antebrachial interosseous membrane Radius Ulna Capitulum Annular ligament (covering head and neck of radius) Lateral view a
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Supporting Structures of the Elbow
Biceps brachii muscle Attached to radial tuberosity Controls elbow motion Elbow ligaments Radial collateral Annular Ulnar collateral © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-8b The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments.
Tendon of biceps brachii muscle Annular ligament Humerus Articular capsule Antebrachial interosseous membrane Medial epicondyle Ulnar collateral ligament Radius Ulna Olecranon of ulna b Medial view
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9-6 The Hip Joint The Hip Joint Also called coxal joint
Strong ball-and-socket diarthrosis Wide range of motion © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-6 The Hip Joint Structures of the Hip Joint
Head of femur fits into it Socket of acetabulum Which is extended by fibrocartilaginous acetabular labrum © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-6 The Hip Joint Ligaments of the Hip Joint Iliofemoral Pubofemoral
Ischiofemoral Transverse acetabular Ligamentum teres © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-9a The Right Hip Joint.
Iliofemoral ligament Articular cartilage Acetabular labrum Ligament of the femoral head Acetabulum Transverse acetabular ligament (spanning acetabular notch) Fat pad in acetabular fossa a A lateral view with the femur removed
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Figure 9-9b The Right Hip Joint.
Pubofemoral ligament Greater trochanter Iliofemoral ligament Lesser trochanter An anterior view b
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Figure 9-9c The Right Hip Joint.
Iliofemoral ligament Ischiofemoral ligament Greater trochanter Lesser trochanter Ischial tuberosity c A posterior view, showing additional ligaments that add strength to the capsule
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9-6 The Knee Joint The Knee Joint A complicated hinge joint
Transfers weight from femur to tibia Articulations of the knee joint Two femur–tibia articulations At medial and lateral condyles One between patella and patellar surface of femur © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-6 The Knee Joint The Articular Capsule and Joint Cavity
Medial and lateral menisci Fibrocartilage pads At femur–tibia articulations Cushion and stabilize joint Give lateral support © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-6 The Knee Joint Seven Major Supporting Ligaments
Patellar ligament (anterior) 2. & 3. Two popliteal ligaments (posterior) 4. & 5. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (inside joint capsule) Tibial collateral ligament (medial) Fibular collateral ligament (lateral) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 9-10a The Right Knee Joint.
Quadriceps tendon Ligaments that Stabilize the Knee Joint Joint capsule Patella Patellar retinaculae Tibial collateral ligament Fibular collateral ligament Patellar ligament Fibula Tibia a Anterior view, superficial layer
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Figure 9-10b The Right Knee Joint.
Patellar surface Ligaments that Stabilize the Knee Joint Posterior cruciate ligament Lateral condyle Medial condyle Anterior cruciate ligament Tibial collateral ligament Menisci Medial Fibular collateral ligament Tibia Lateral Cut tendon of biceps femoris muscle Fibula b Deep anterior view, flexed
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Figure 9-10c The Right Knee Joint.
Plantaris muscle Gastrocnemius muscle, lateral head Gastrocnemius muscle, medial head Femur Ligaments that Stabilize the Knee Joint Bursa Tibial collateral ligament Joint capsule Fibular collateral ligament Popliteal ligaments Cut tendon of biceps femoris muscle Popliteus muscle Tibia Fibula c Posterior view, superficial layer
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Figure 9-10d The Right Knee Joint.
Femur Ligaments that Stabilize the Knee Joint Anterior cruciate ligament Fibular collateral ligament Posterior cruciate ligament Medial condyle Lateral condyle Menisci Lateral Medial Cut tendon Tibia Fibula d Deep posterior view, extended
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Table 9-3 Joints of the Appendicular Skeleton (Part 1 of 2).
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Table 9-3 Joints of the Appendicular Skeleton (Part 2 of 2).
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Joints
Degenerative Changes Rheumatism A pain and stiffness of skeletal and muscular systems Arthritis All forms of rheumatism that damage articular cartilages of synovial joints Osteoarthritis Caused by wear and tear of joint surfaces, or genetic factors affecting collagen formation Generally in people over age 60 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Joints
Rheumatoid Arthritis An inflammatory condition Caused by infection, allergy, or autoimmune disease Involves the immune system Gouty Arthritis Occurs when crystals (uric acid or calcium salts) Form within synovial fluid Due to metabolic disorders © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Joints
Joint Immobilization Reduces flow of synovial fluid Can cause arthritis symptoms Treated by continuous passive motion or CPM (therapy) Bones and Aging Bone mass decreases Bones weaken Increases risk of hip fracture, hip dislocation, or pelvic fracture © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bone Recycling Living bones maintain equilibrium between: Bone building (osteoblasts) And breakdown (osteoclasts) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Factors Affecting Bone Strength Age Physical stress Hormone levels Calcium and phosphorus uptake and excretion Genetic and environmental factors © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bones Support Body Systems Support and protect other systems Store fat, calcium, and phosphorus Manufacture cells for immune system © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bones Support Body Systems Disorders in other body systems can cause: Bone tumors Osteoporosis Arthritis Rickets (vitamin D deficiency) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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