1. Identity: A Guiding Force in the Unstructured Western World
Seth J. Schwartz, Ph.D.
University of Miami
October 23, 2008

2. THE DEMANDS OF THE MODERN WORLD
For most of human history, society was very structured, and people knew what their roles were.
It was very clear what people were supposed to do with their lives when they became adults – and it was clear when childhood ended and adulthood began (e.g., Mead, 1928).
All of this has changed, however, in the post-industrial world.
Just as the range of possibilities (career, relationships, parenthood, et cetera) has expanded, the structure and guidance offered by society has decreased.
This has been especially apparent in the past years:

3. THE DEMANDS OF THE MODERN WORLD
YEAR
SECONDARY EDUCATION
WORKFORCE ENTRY
1968
FAMILY OF ORIGIN
FAMILY OF PROCREATION
WORKFORCE ENTRY
SECONDARY EDUCATION
2008
FAMILY OF ORIGIN
FAMILY OF PROCREATION 10 14 18 22 26 30
Age

4. THE DEMANDS OF THE MODERN WORLD
As can be seen on the previous slide, the timing of workforce entry, marriage, and childbearing has been delayed considerably in the last 40 years.
This delay has created a “gap” in the lifespan for many people – where they are no longer adolescents, but they are not yet fully adults.
This gap has been termed emerging adulthood, and it corresponds to the college years (and shortly afterward as well).
Emerging adulthood represents the time between finishing high school and starting full-time work, and between leaving home (physically, psychologically, or both) and starting one’s family of procreation.

5. EMERGING ADULTHOOD AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
With the uncoupling of school from work, and of family of origin from family of procreation, young people are, more and more, forced to handle these issues on their own – rather than being guided by society.
It is therefore more and more important for young people in the Western world to develop their own sense of personal identity – goals, values, and beliefs – that can guide them in making these choices.
But how is this done? How does one develop a sense of identity?

6. MECHANISMS OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Identity does start somewhere – in the family system, the peer group, and the school environment in childhood and adolescence.
Supportive Parenting
Prosocial Peers
Bonding to School
Personal Identity Consolidation
Successful Adult Commitments
ADOLESCENCE
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
ADULTHOOD
Sources: Côté, 2002, Journal of Youth Studies; Hall & Brassard, 2008, Journal of Early Adolescence; Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, & Pollock, 2008, Journal of Adolescent Research; Schwartz et al., in press, Youth & Society.

7. MECHANISMS OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Most work on personal identity traces its roots to Erikson (1950, 1968), who spoke of identity in terms of a continuum between identity synthesis and identity confusion:
The goal of identity development is therefore to maximize synthesis and minimize confusion – within reason, of course.
IDENTITY SYNTHESIS
IDENTITY CONFUSION

8. MECHANISMS OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
So how does identity develop?
Through two interconnected processes: exploration and commitment.
Exploration serves two functions:
(a) surveying and sorting through a wide variety of potential alternatives; and
(b) obtaining more information about a choice that one has already made.
Similarly, commitment serves two functions:
(a) settling on a set of goals, values, and beliefs to which one will adhere; and
(b) integrating these choices into one’s larger sense of self.

9. THE IDENTITY EVALUATION CYCLE
Exploration in Breadth
Commitment Making
Exploration in Depth
Identification with Commitment
If a commitment is enacted but found to be unsatisfactory during
the “exploration in depth” phase, then the person may discard the
commitment and return to exploring in breadth.
Sources: Luyckx, Goossens, & Soenens, 2006, Developmental Psychology; Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2006,
Journal of Adolescence.

10. IDENTITY EXPLORATION: A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD
In Western societies, exploration in breadth is an important part of personal identity formation.
Exploration in breadth is associated with openness and curiosity (Berman, Schwartz, Kurtines, & Berman, 2001).
Paradoxically, however, exploration in breadth is also associated with anxiety, depression, and low self-worth (Kidwell, Dunham, Bacho, Pastorino, & Portes, 1995).
Two explanations have been found for these negative effects of exploration in breadth (see next page):

11. FIRST – THE ROLE OF IDENTITY CONFUSION
Exploration in Breadth
Identity Confusion
Anxiety and Depression
Positive Functioning - +
Source: Schwartz, Zamboanga, Weisskirch, & Rodriguez, in press, International Journal of Behavioral Development.

12. FIRST – THE ROLE OF IDENTITY CONFUSION
In this scenario, exploring in depth requires the person to give up or suspend whatever commitments she or he previously had – and this induces a sense of confusion and disequilibrium.
In turn, this confusion predisposes the person toward anxiety and depression, as well as lowered levels of positive functioning (e.g., self-esteem, coping skills).
Schwartz et al. (in press) found that, when exploration was reported as occurring in the past, rather than in the present, these symptoms were no longer present.
It is worth noting that these findings were consistent across Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics – suggesting that exploration in breadth has similar consequences in various ethnic groups.

13. SECOND – RUMINATIVE EXPLORATION
A second explanation is that exploration in breadth is also associated with what Luyckx et al. (2008) call ruminative exploration – obsessing and worrying over the life choices that have to be made.
So the issues involved in discarding commitments, and sorting through a seemingly endless range of alternatives – include a sense of confusion and a tendency to worry about the need to make a choice.

14. IDENTITY CONSOLIDATION
The end result of the identity development process in adolescence and emerging adulthood has been referred to as identity consolidation (Schwartz, 2006, 2007).
Identity consolidation refers to commitment making and identification with commitment, but also to a number of other qualities:
(a) A period of exploration in breadth that occurred in the past, but that is no longer occurring (Schwartz, 2006);
(b) A synthesized sense of identity (Erikson, 1950);
(c) believing that one has reached adulthood (Côté, 2000; Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, & Pollock, 2008);
(d) having found a validating adult community and support system (Côté, 1997)
Whereas exploration in breadth is associated with anxiety, depression, and low self-worth, once a sense of identity has been consolidated, it is associated with high self-worth (and other aspects of positive functioning) and is protective against anxiety and depression.

15. CONTINUED IDENTITY CONFUSION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
As noted above, identity confusion may be a by-product of the identity exploration process. Some degree of confusion may therefore be normative in Western cultural contexts.
However, some individuals may experience more trouble with the identity development process – and in coping with the demands of unstructured Western societies in general – and as a result, they may experience a more aggravated and prolonged sense of confusion.
The result is likely to be a sense of drifting without purpose, poor coping skills, low self-worth, and risk taking behavior (Luyckx et al., 2005, 2008; Schwartz, Côté, & Arnett, 2005).

16. WHAT CAN BE DONE ABOUT THIS?
Individuals who appear to be drifting and experiencing difficulty with the increasingly individualized identity development process may be in need of some sort of intervention.
Although the identity intervention literature is in its infancy, two primary types of intervention strategies have been proposed:
(a) Problem-solving workshops focused on helping young people to generate and critically evaluate alternatives that they can explore in breadth (Berman, Kennerley, & Kennerley, 2008; Ferrer-Wreder et al., 2002); and
(b) Goal-focused workshops in which young people are encouraged to identify their inner talents and potentials, and to “build” goals around them (Schwartz, Kurtines, & Montgomery, 2005).
Both of these strategies have been found to promote exploration, but we do not know whether they have positive long-term effects.

17. CONCLUSION – BACK TO THE BIG PICTURE
As a consequence of social and economic changes in the late 20th century, young people have been left to find their own way into adulthood.
This individualized transition to adulthood has rendered personal identity development extremely important as a resource with which young people can make progress toward adult roles such as career, committed relationships, and parenthood.
Relationships in childhood and adolescence may help to set the stage for successful identity development, but ultimately it is up to the person her/himself to develop a synthesized sense of identity.
Exploration in breadth can be distressing, but it is an essential part of the identity development process.
When commitments are made and consolidated, the effects of exploration in breadth can be reversed.
People who are having trouble developing a sense of identity may need intervention to help them get on track.

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