1. 2. The standards of textuality: cohesion

2. From the sentence to the text
Traditional approach to the study of language: sentence as conventional object of study
Structuralism (Bloofield, Harris, Chomsky): sentence as the largest unit with an inherent structure (cf. Bloomfield 1933: 170).
Language samples were gathered and analysed according to systems of minimal units (phonemes, morphemes, syntagmemes…). Each system of minimal units constitutes a level organized by the opposition of units and their distinctive features, so that each unit was in some way distinct from all others.
Whatever fell beyond the scope of the sentence was assigned to the domain of stylistics.

3. Up to the 70s no established methodology that would apply to texts
Meaning as a secondary aspect, because it includes extra-linguistic aspects
Up to the 70s no established methodology that would apply to texts
‘“text linguistics” cannot be a designation for a single theory or method. Instead, it designates any work in language science devoted to the text as the primary object of inquiry’
De Beaugrande - Dressler

4. Historical roots Rhetoric: Stylistics literary studies Anthropology
training public orators
texts evaluated in terms of their effects upon the audience of receivers;
texts are vehicles of purposeful interaction.
Stylistics
style results from the characteristic selection of options for producing a text.
literary studies
Anthropology
language as human activity; focus on meaning
Sociology
analysis of conversation as a mode of social organization and interaction

5. Where TL comes from
Rhetoric shares several concerns with text linguistics, notably the assumptions that:
(a) arranging of ideas is open to systematic control;
(b) the transition between ideas and expressions can be subjected to conscious training;
(c) among the various texts which express a given configuration of ideas, some are of higher quality than others;
(d) judgements of texts can be made in terms of their effects upon the audience of receivers;
(e) texts are vehicles of purposeful interaction.

6. Both Rhetoric and TL concerned with:
“How are discoverable structures built through operations of decision and selection, and what are the implications of those operations for communicative interaction?”
as opposed to
“What structures can analysis uncover in a language?”, (traditional linguistic)

7. many aspects of texts only appear systematic in view of how texts are produced, presented, and received.

8. «When we move beyond the sentence boundary, we enter a domain characterized by greater freedom of selection or variation and lesser conformity with established rules.
For instance, we can state that an English declarative sentence must contain at least a noun phrase and an agreeing verb phrase, as in that perennial favourite of linguists:
The man hit the ball.
But if we ask how that might fit into a text, e.g.:
[a] The man hit the ball. The crowd cheered him on.
[b] The man hit the ball. He was cheered on by the crowd.
[c] The man hit the ball. The crowd cheered the promising rookie on.
it is much harder to decide what expression for the ‘man’ should be used in a follow-up sentence (e.g. ‘him’ vs. ‘this promising rookie’), and in what format (e.g. active vs. passive).

9. TEXT An extended structure of syntactic units (Werlich 1983)
A communicative occurrence (deBeaugrande-Dressler 1981)
Any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. […] A text is a unit of language in use (Halliday-Hasan 1976)
The concept of texture is entirely appropriate to express the property of 'being a text'. A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text (deBeaugrande-Dressler 1981).
Halliday, M.A.K; and Ruqayia Hasan (1976), Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Werlich, E., (1983), A Text Grammar of English. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer

10. Standards of textuality
For De Beaugrande –Dressler: seven standards, which serve as constitutive principles of textual communication. Most important ones: cohesion and coherence.
“A text will be defined as a communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality (dB-D)

11. standards of textuality:
cohesion
coherence
intentionality
acceptability
informativity
situationality
intertextuality

12. Text-external criteria Text-internal criteria
Intentionality
Acceptability
Informativity
Situationality
Intertextuality
Text-internal criteria
Cohesion
Coherence
“pure” text linguistics
It could be said that the text-internal elements constitute the text, while the text-external ones constitute the context.
Discourse analysis

13. text linguistics and discourse analysis
The difference basically lies in the emphasis the two disciplines place on the two sets of criteria of textuality: in the “purely” textlinguistic approaches texts are viewed as “more or less explicit phenomena of cognitive processes” (Tischer et al., 2000: 29), and the context plays a subordinate role, whereas discourse analysis considers both text internal and text external criteria

14. 1. Cohesion
how the components of the surface text, i.e. the actual words we hear or see, are mutually connected within a sequence.
The surface components depend upon each other according to grammatical forms and conventions, such that cohesion rests upon grammatical dependencies. ...

15. Cohesive elements in de Beaugrande-Dressler’s model (integrated with Halliday-Hasan’s model)
use of pro-forms/reference
personal / demonstrative pronouns
premodifiers (such)
clause substitution (to do so)
grammar dependency network, at phrase, clause and sentence level
morphology
tense/aspect
comparative reference
text conjunctives (inter-sentence);
paratactic conjunctives;
hypotactic conjunctives
ellipsis
Lexical and textual cohesion
recurrence
partial recurrence
Parallelism
Paraphrase
collocation
hyponymy / meronimy
synonymy / antonimy
functional sentence perspective
information structure
intonation

16. Use of pro-forms/reference
personal / demonstrative pronouns
There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. She had so many children,  she didn’t know what to do. Anaphora
He was scarcely ten years old when he was first arrested as a vagabond. He spoke thus to the judge: “I am called Jean François Leturc...” Cataphora

17. premodifiers
Gerald Middleton was a man of mildly but persistently depressive temperament. Such men are not at their best at breakfast. (Wilson 1958: 3)

18. Clause substitution miss hardcastle: I understand you perfectly, sir.
marlow (aside): Egad! and that’s more than I do myself. (Goldsmith 1773: 36):
To this day I am ashamed that I did not spring up and pinion him, then and there. Had I possessed one ounce of physical courage, I should have done so. (Beerbohm 1958: 57)

19. Ellipsis
The daughter is said to be well-bred and beautiful; the son an awkward booby, reared up and spoiled at his mother’s apron strings. (Goldsmith 1773: 14)

20. Lexical and textual cohesion
Recurrence
There’s water through many homes I would say almost all of them have water in them. It’s just completely under water.
2) And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep. (Frost 1969: 224)

21. Partial recurrence
... to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station ... the causes which impel them to the separation.
Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable ... Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies. (Declaration of Independence)
It enhances cohesion by showng that the author is unravelling one and the same thread of discourse.

22. Parallelism
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns.
We must hold them Enemies in War, in Peace Friends

23. paraphrase
had never seen a murderer ... the decent symbol which indemnifies the taker of a life. (Beerbohm 1955: 56ff.)

24. Collocation (1) Phraseological collocation
A strong tea, powerful computer
(2) Looser collocational bonds
Pipe + smoke, Bake + oven
(UK) -- Ernst & Young, the accountancy firm, resigned as auditor to Wembley yesterday, barely a month before the dog track owner and gambling group faces a bribery trial in the United States. /The sudden departure of E&Y, the firm’s auditor since 1999, was included in a trading statement that announced a permanent replacement for chief executive Nigel Potter, who has stepped aside to defend the charges in the US.

25. Hyponymy/hyperonimy Meronimy synonymy / antonimy
LIGHT -candles, lanterns,
COLOURS – silver, golden
TABLE – plates and goblets
Meronimy
Great Hall/ ceiling
synonymy / antonimy

26. Both the notions of collocation (sense 2) and hyponymy are related to the concept of "semantic field" or "semantic domain"
"Related to the concept of hyponymy, but more loosely defined, is the notion of a semantic field or domain. A semantic field denotes a segment of reality symbolized by a set of related words. (Brinton 2000: p. 112)

27. Functional sentence perspective
This designation suggests that sentence elements can “function” by setting the knowledge they activate into a “perspective” of importance or newness. In many languages, for instance, elements conveying important, new, or unexpected material are reserved for the latter part of the sentence

28. GIVEN= what you –listener/reader– already know about, or have access to.
NEW= what I –speaker/writer– am asking you – listener/reader – to attend to.

29. There was a collision between a car and a cyclist at the crossroads near my house early in the morning. THE cyclist was taken to hospital with a concussion. The witnesses say that the car was going at seventy miles an hour.

30. Information structure: a case study (Degano/Garzone, forth.)
Comparison of English wires and their Italian translations
[…] in the English headlines the message builds up towards a climax which comes at the end.
In the Italian translations, the information structure seems geared to a more immediate activation of the mental frame into which the news story is set,

31. Dozens killed and wounded in Yemen police college blast (7/1/2015, Reuters)
Yemen, bomba davanti a scuola polizia a Sanaa: 30 morti, 50 feriti. (7/1/2015, LaPresse)

32. Yemen army and Houthi fighters clash in capital (19/1/2015, Reuters)
Yemen, scontri a Sanaa fra esercito e combattenti sciiti houti. (19/1/2015, LaPresse)

33. This contributes to an immediate appreciation of the core message by the reader while at the same time maximising its newsworthiness.
Ohio, man arrested for planning attack on US Capitol (14/1/2015, Reuters).
Terrorismo: pianificava attacco a Congresso Usa, arrestato. (14/1/2015, LaPresse)

34. news headlines in Italian often begin with a noun phrase that either sums up the gist of the news copy or establishes the frame in which the news should be set, in the case of updates to events that have already been communicated to the reader. The following headlines show this trend:

35. English news wires

36. Italian dispatches
Parigi, strage al Charlie Hebdo: sospetti ancora in fuga. Senza esito ricerche in Piccardia  
Siria, raid israeliano contro Hezbollah: sei morti, tra i quali un comandante.
Assalto al giornale Charlie Hebdo: 12 morti. Due dei tre killer reduci dalla Siria.
Siria, raid israeliano contro Hezbollah: dodici morti tra cui comandante.
Yemen nel caos, ribelli sciiti vicini al golpe: occupata tv e agenzia di Stato.
Golpe in Yemen, ribelli entrano nel palazzo presidenziale.
Is, ondata di attacchi: 25 morti in Iraq. Respinta offensiva a Kirkuk.