1. METHODOLOGY AND MEASUREMENT ASPECTS
LECTURE 2
METHODOLOGY AND MEASUREMENT ASPECTS

2. Research issues Truth in science Scientific standards of truth
Reliability and validity
Consistent
Bias free
Without compromise

3. Issues in Cross-culture comparisons
Equivalence (keseimbangan)
- A state or condition of similariy in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparisons to be meaningful.
- Lack of equivalence is known as bias

4. Issues in cross-culture comparisons (cnt)
Theoretical issues
theories are bound influenced by cultural framework of the theorist.
major concern in CC Psych is the equivalence of overall theoretical framework being tested and the meaning of specific hypotheses being addressed.

5. Study’s Parameter Methodological issues Definitions of culture
Sampling adequacy
Noncultural demographic equivalence
Conceptual and empirical definitions of variable
Language and translations issues
Research environment, setting and procedures

6. Study’s parameter Data analysis Cultural response set
Effect size analysis
Interpretation issues
Cause-effect versus correlational interpretations
Researcher bias and value judgments
Non-equivalent data

7. Definition of culture
Definition of culture is subjective and sociopsychological.
Previous researchers classify culture by race, country (nationality) and ethnicity easier to measure culture and cultural differences do underlies country.
The issue of how to measure culture should be preceeded by identifying what are the cultures to be compared.

8. Sampling adequacy
Sample must be realistic and acceptable (adequate, and representative), and homogenous.
Availability of sampling / subject pool
Subjects must be manageable

9. Noncultural demographic equivalence
Are the samples equivalent in all aspects except culture ?
Researchers must ensure that samples are noncultural demographic variables so that counfounding variables can be controlled in the study.
Researchers can control the samples by identifying the major participant characteristics and hold constant those variables. E.g. same ratio for males and females in all cultures.

10. Noncultural demographic equivalence
Conceptual problem arises when noncultural demographic characteristics intertwined with culture, e.g. religion. A Catholic in America may not be the same with a Catholic in Sabah.
To overcome this, a random sampling is used, and statistical assessment to eliminate possible effects of noncultural demographic variables

11. Conceptual and empirical definitions of variables
Researchers should be aware with the equivalence of conceptual and working /empirical/ operation definitions of variables measured in a CC study.
E.g definition of intelligence may vary across cultures.
Debate on the credibility of WAIS or the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.
The questions of the validity of a measurement and how reliable it is in other culture.

12. Conceptual and empirical definitions of variables
Though the conceptual definition may be the same, but operational definition also requires a researcher to be careful in formulating acceptable instruments in measuring those variables.
Factorial analysis is used in establishing equivalence of the constructs (variables) used in a cross-culture study.
To some scholars, content validation is the least effort in allowing valid comparisons across cultures.

13. Language and translations issues
Back-translation by Brislin (1970)
It involves taking the research protocol in one language, translating it to the other language(s), and having someone lese translate it back to the original.
If the back-translated version is the same as the original, they are generally considered equivalent.
If not, the process has to be repeated a few times until it becomes the same as original.
The original language is decentred through this process, with elimination of any cultural-specific concepts

14. Language and translation issues (cntd)
Committee approach
Several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language.
The product of this process reflects a translation that is the shared consensus of a linguistically equivalent protocol across language and cultures.

15. The research environment, setting and procedures
Familiarity with research cultures, provides different expectations from the individuals involved, especially the respondents.
In some countries, being a respondent is a privilege, some may perceive it as a chore, or a burden.

16. Data Analysis Issues Culture Response set
- the tendency of a member of a culture to use certain parts of a scale when responding.
- e.g. members from collectivist culture may hesitate to use extreme endpoints of a scale, consistent with a “culture reluctance”.
Effect size analysis

17. Interpretation issues
Cause-effect vs. correlational interpretations
Researcher bias and value judgments
Dealing with nonequivalent data