1. Taste and Smell
Special senses II

2. Ear

3. Internal ear and Cochlea

4. Cochlea: cross section

5. Auditory pathway

6. Auditory cortex

7. Determination of the Direction from Which Sound Comes
A person determines the horizontal direction from which sound comes by two principal means:
the time lag between the entry of sound into one ear and its entry into the opposite ear
(2) the difference between the intensities of the sounds

8. Audiogram

9. Sense of Taste Sour taste Salty taste Sweet taste Bitter taste
Taste is mainly a function of the taste buds in the mouth, but sense of smell also contributes strongly to taste perception, and the texture of food, as detected by tactual senses of the mouth, and the presence of substances in the food that stimulate pain endings, such as pepper, greatly alter the taste experience, vision, color, fumes.
Taste allows a person to select food in accord with desires and often in accord with the body tissues’ metabolic need for specific substances.
Sour taste
Salty taste
Sweet taste
Bitter taste
Umami taste

10. Taste index

11. Taste Blindness.
Some people are taste blind for certain substances, especially for different types of thiourea compounds.A substance used frequently by psychologists for demonstrating taste blindness is phenylthiocarbamide, for which about 15 to 30 per cent of all people exhibit taste blindness; the exact percentage depends on the method of testing and the concentration of the substance.

12. Taste bud
A taste bud has a diameter of about 1 /30 millimeter and a length of about 1 /16 millimeter. The taste bud is composed of about 50 modified epithelial cells, some of which are supporting cells called sustentacular cells and others of which are taste cells. The taste cells are continually being replaced by mitotic division of surrounding epithelial cells, so that some taste cells are young cells. Others are mature cells that lie toward the center of the bud; these soon break up and dissolve. The life span of each taste cell is about 10 days in lower mammals but is unknown for humans.
The outer tips of the taste cells are arranged around a minute taste pore. From the tip of each taste cell, several microvilli, or taste hairs, protrude outward into the taste pore to approach the cavity of the mouth. These microvilli provide the receptor surface for taste. Interwoven around the bodies of the taste cells is a branching terminal network of taste nerve fibers that are stimulated by the taste receptor cells. Some of these fibers invaginate into folds of the taste cell membranes. Many vesicles form beneath the cell membrane near the fibers. It is believed that these vesicles contain a neurotransmitter substance that is released through the cell membrane to excite the nerve fiber endings in response to taste stimulation.

13. Mechanism of Stimulation of Taste Buds Receptor Potential
The membrane of the taste cell, like that of most other sensory receptor cells, is negatively charged on the inside with respect to the outside. Application of a taste substance to the taste hairs causes partial loss of this negative potential—that is, the taste cell becomes depolarized. In most instances, the decrease in potential, within a wide range, is approximately proportional to the logarithm of concentration of the stimulating substance. This change in electrical potential in the taste cell is called “the receptor potential for taste”.

14. Disorders of taste sensation
Ageusia - Inability to taste
Hypogeusia - Decreased ability to taste
Dysgeusia – Distorted ability to taste

15. Taste pathway

16. Taste reflexes
Taste Reflexes Integrated in the Brain Stem. From the tractus solitarius, many taste signals are transmitted within the brain stem itself directly into the superior and inferior salivatory nuclei, and these areas transmit signals to the submandibular, sublingual, and parotid glands to help control the secretion of saliva during the ingestion and digestion of food

17. Sense of smell

18. Olfactory bulb: A mysterious organ

19. Olfactory system

20. Disorders of sense of smell
Anosmia - Inability to detect odors
Hyposmia - Decreased ability to detect odors
Dysosmia - Distorted identification of smellParosmia - Altered perception of smell in the presence of an odor, usually unpleasant
Phantosmia – Perception of smell without an odor present
Agnosia - Inability to classify or contrast odors, although able to detect odors

21. Dog’s skull