1. Sociology Ch. 2 S. 2: Cultural Variation
Obj: describe cultural universals and explain why they exist; explain what the terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism mean; identify factors that account for variations among and within cultures.

2. Suppose you take a trip to Tokyo. Japanese friends invite you to dinner. They tell you that they will be dining in traditional Japanese style. Would you know what to expect?
Cultures can differ widely. To get an idea of how diverse world cultures are, you might consider languages. If you count only the languages that have more than 2 million speakers, there are more than 220 different languages in the world today.

3. If you include all the local languages, the number is enormous
If you include all the local languages, the number is enormous. In addition, because there may be dialects of the same basic language, even people who speak the same language may have difficulty understanding one another. In the English language, for example, British English, American English, Canadian English, and Australian English are just a few of the possible variations.

4. What Do We Have in Common?
You may be wondering how cultures can be so different when all humans have the same basic needs. The answer is that humans have the ability to meet their needs in a vast number of ways.

5. Only biological makeup and the physical environment limit this ability
Only biological makeup and the physical environment limit this ability. Nevertheless, some needs are so basic that all societies must develop certain features to ensure their fulfillment. These features, common to all cultures, are called cultural universals.

6. In the 1940s anthropologist George Murdock examined hundreds of different cultures in an attempt to determine what general traits are common to all cultures. Murdock used his research to compile a list of more than 65 cultural universals. Among these universals are body adornment, cooking, dancing, family, feasting, forms of greeting, funeral ceremonies, gift giving, housing, language, medicine, music, myths and folklore, religion, sports, and tool making.

7. Murdock also found that although survival may dictate the need for cultural universals, the specific nature of these traits can vary widely. One factor that gives rise to families is the need to care for young children. He argued that in all cultures, the purpose of the family is the same. The family ensures that new members will be added to society and cared for until old enough to fend for themselves. In addition, the family introduces children to the components of their culture.

8. The makeup of a family, however, varies from culture to culture
The makeup of a family, however, varies from culture to culture. In most of the Western world, a family consists of one or both parents and their children. In the case of three-generation families, grandparents may be introduced in the definition.
In some parts of the world a family may include a man, his several wives, and their children. While the structure of family may be different, Murdock argued that the existence and purpose of families compose a cultural universal.

9. Variation Among Societies
In the 1930s anthropologist Margaret Mead conducted a now-classic study of cultural variation. Her purpose in the study was to determine whether differences in basic temperament – the fundamental emotional disposition of a person – result mainly from inherited characteristics or from cultural influences.

10. To find out, she made first-hand observations of the shared, learned behaviors of several small societies in New Guinea. The desire for an in-depth understanding of cultural variation led Mead to live among the people of New Guinea and to participate in their activities.
Two of the societies that Mead examined were the Arapesh and the Mundugumor. Both groups lived in the northern part of what today is Papua New Guinea. Listen, and make comparisons between the two cultures.

11. Comparing the Two Societies:
What factors might account for the vast cultural differences between these two societies? At the time of Mead’s study, the Arapesh lived in the mountains while the Mundugumor lived in a river valley. The A’s planted gardens while the M’s were primarily food gatherers. For the A’s, food was usually scarce. The M’s, on the other hand, had an abundance of food, and life was relatively easy.

12. Based on her research, Mead concluded that temperament is mainly the result of culture rather than biology. She noted that differences in temperament were much greater between the two societies than between males and females in the same society. Among the Arapesh, men and women alike were gentle and cooperative. Similarly, among the Mundugumor, everyone was hostile and competitive. In recent years, Mead’s research methods and observations have been criticized. Nonetheless, her study vividly illustrates the wide variance among cultures.

13. Studying Variation
The study of variations in cultures presents challenges for social scientists. Cultural variations are what make different societies interesting to study. However, social scientists must be careful to remain critical of biases in their observations and conclusions.

14. Ethnocentrism
It is not unusual for people to have a negative response to cultural traits that differ drastically from their own. This tendency to view one’s own culture and group as superior is called ethnocentrism. People in all societies are, at times, ethnocentric. The belief that the characteristics of one’s group or society are right and good helps to build group unity.

15. At times, belief of the superiority of a society results from technological advances that make one group see others as inferior. However, when ethnocentrism becomes extreme in this way, culture can stagnate. By limiting the pool of acceptable members, groups and societies run the risk of excluding new influences that might prove beneficial.

16. Even anthropologists and sociologists struggle with ethnocentrism
Even anthropologists and sociologists struggle with ethnocentrism. Napoleon Chagnon’s first impression of the Yanomamo was filtered through the standards of his own culture. Everything about the Yanomamo culture contradicted Chagnon’s expectations of how people should look and act. Chagnon admits that when he began to study the Yanomamo of Venezuela and Brazil, their appearance and behavior initially horrified him.

17. Cultural Relativism
Social scientists attempt to keep an open mind toward cultural variations. To do so many adopt an attitude of cultural relativism, which is the belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards rather than by applying the standards of another culture. In other words, researchers who practice cultural relativism attempt to understand cultural practices from the points of view of the members of the society being studied.

18. Variation Within Societies
Cultural variations exist not only among societies but also within societies. Among the major sources of variation within a society are the unique cultural practices of various subgroups.

19. As an American, you share a common culture with all other Americans
As an American, you share a common culture with all other Americans. American culture is a collection of traits, complexes, and patterns that, by and large, are distinct from those of their societies. In addition to these broad cultural features some groups in society share values, norms, and behaviors that are not shared by the entire population. This unique cultural characteristics of these groups form a subculture.

20. Criminologist Edwin Sutherland developed the idea of subcultures in the 1920s, through his work on crime and juvenile delinquency. In addition to deviant subcultures, sociologists today recognize age, gender, ethnic, religious, political, geographic, social-class, and occupational subcultures.

21. Most subcultures do not reject all of the values and practices of the larger society. For example, residents of San Francisco’s Chinatown have many broad American cultural traits, such as going to public schools, playing with toys, and working at similar jobs. The culture of the Chinatown residents also includes the Chinese language and specific foods and celebrations that are not shared by most Americans. Chinese New Year is one such cultural celebration.

22. The residents of Little Havana in Miami and the Navajo of the Southwest also have their own language and other cultural traits that are not shared by the larger American society. Subcultures have also developed around age groups. Youth subcultures have existed in the US throughout the 1900s. Characteristics of these youth cultures have included owning fast cars, listening to rock or hip hop music, and wearing certain clothes.

23. Most subcultures do not present a threat to society
Most subcultures do not present a threat to society. Modern society is dependent on various subcultures – such as the military, the police, lawyers, physicians, teachers, and religious leaders – to provide many important functions. Furthermore, subcultures, particularly those based on race and ethnicity, add diversity and may make society more open to change.

24. In some instances, however, sub cultural practices are consciously intended to challenge the values of the larger society. Sometimes a group rejects the major values, norms, new set of cultural patterns. Sociologists call the resulting subculture a counterculture. The cyberpunk movement, anarchists, organized crime families, and the hippie movement of the 1960s are examples of countercultures in the US. For example, some organized crime families reject social norms such as obeying laws.

25. As is true in the case of cultural variation among societies, cultural variation within a society may give rise to ethnocentric feelings. Sociologists try to maintain the same attitude of cultural relativism when studying subcultures and countercultures.