1. The Life Course Approach to Emerging Adulthood
Becoming an Adult
The Life Course Approach to Emerging Adulthood

2. The Transition to Adulthood
Becoming an adult is a process that begins in adolescence. It continues for a number of years, concluding with a transition to adulthood when . . .
you are an adult in your own eyes
you are an adult in the eyes of your parents, family, friends, etc.
you are an adult in the eyes of the law
you are an adult in the eyes of the society in which you live
As there are a wide variety of factors that determine when an individual becomes an adult, it is difficult to succinctly determine when that transition should conclude. For example . . .
In the 1970s, when the age of majority was reduced from 21 to 18 or 19 in each province, young adults were leaving school, working, getting married, and having children in their early 20s; today, most 18 year olds are still in school, and will continue to be dependent on their parents for several years. As such, marriage and parenthood are generally occurring 10 years later than in previous decades, and the usual signs of adulthood – such as leaving home and becoming self-reliant – are delayed.
This inconsistency among legal, economic, and social statuses reflects the changes in becoming an adult in Canada.

3. The Pace of Transition
According to Kotre & Hall (1990), the transition from one stage to another in the life course is influenced by the interaction of several clocks, each ticking away at its own pace.
Chronological Clock: age of majority; defines adulthood precisely in terms of the number of years since birth
Biological Clock: physical changes that result in sexual maturity; attainment of full adult size and strength
Psychological Clock: how the brain is developing as individuals acquire new mental processes/more mature ways of understanding the world
Social Clock: sets the timetable for society’s expectations concerning when certain events should occur in the lives of individuals
In Canada . . .
the chronological clock continues to tick at a steady pace so that all individuals acquire privileges and responsibilities at the same age
the biological clock has sped up, as improved nutrition and health enable bodies to mature sooner, resulting in sexual maturation and fertility in the early teens, despite most individuals not reaching full adult size until their early 20s
the social clock changes as social norms determine when events (eg., leaving home, marriage, etc.) are “on time” or “late”; over the past two decades, the social clock has slowed significantly
Changes to the psychological clock are difficult to determine, as mental processes can only be observed when applied.

4. The Life Course Approach: Key Concepts
life course theories (“developmental theories”) describe changes in behaviour in age- graded patterns as individuals mature
created by analyzing the behaviour of large groups of individuals
quantitative data: gathered by using questionnaires to determine overall patterns of behaviour
qualitative data: gathered through interviews to determine how individuals describe their motivation and feelings about their behaviour
combining quantitative and qualitative data enables researchers to identify patterns of behaviour in order to suggest a possible explanation for a pattern – a theory

5. Life Course Theories of Emerging Adulthood
Life Course theorists agree on one basic premise: the behaviour of individuals results from inner psychological changes in response to life circumstances.
Life Course theories can be grouped into three main principles:
Maturation occurs as individuals progress from one stage to another.
Erik Erikson (p )
Jane Loevinger (p )
Jeffrey Arnett (p )
There are stages in which people change to become different, but not necessarily better.
The Family Life-Cycle Framework (p )
Daniel Levinson ( )
There are no stages; development reflects constant change as individuals respond to environmental influences.
Klaus Riegel (p )
Leonard Pearlin ( )

6. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life
Erik Erikson was the first psychologist to describe predictable stages of human development from childhood to adulthood, contending that there are eight stages in which an individual’s identity emerges and matures.
identity: an individual’s stable awareness of who he or she is/what he or she does and believes
Erikson (1959) contended that each new stage presents a dilemma in which an individual is challenged to develop based on new situations and life circumstances.
The development of identity reflects the progress of the psychological clock; people progress through the stages, pushed or constrained by the social clock, acquiring the basic competencies required to meet the challenges of the next stage in life by resolving the dilemma presented in their current stage.
Failure to resolve a dilemma suggests that an individual might face difficulties later in life.

7. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life Stage Five: Adolescence to Early Adulthood
Erikson defined the dilemma from adolescence through early adulthood as “identity versus role confusion”.
At this stage in life, adolescents are faced with many decisions about who they will become in the future: what work to do, how to fulfill role expectations, what to believe in, etc.
Until they define who they are, they remain confused about what role they will play in adulthood.
In order to resolve this dilemma, individuals must develop fidelity: the ability to live by society’s standards by making choices that serve the needs, strengths, and interests of themselves, and, later, society.

8. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life: Stage Six: Early Adulthood to Adulthood
The dilemma of early adulthood is “intimacy versus isolation”.
intimacy: being able to merge your identity with someone else’s without losing yourself in the process; developing the ability to trust a person enough to reveal your personal thoughts/feelings
In order to develop an intimate relationship with another person, Erikson argued that you first have to have a clear sense of who you are.
Intimate peer relationships replace parents as the primary supportive relationships in an individual’s life; without an identity formed in the previous stage, relationships will be shallow.
An individual would feel lonely if he or she could not connect with others; as such, the basic strength that is acquired by resolving this dilemma is love – developing an overall sense of caring and generosity towards others
In summary, in early adulthood, you determine FIRST who you want to be and what you want to do so that you are true to yourself. THEN, you determine whom you want to be so that you can share yourself with others.

9. Daniel Levinson: Seasons of Life
Published as a book in 1978, Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life proposes that the life course evolves through seasons lasting about 25 years each.
At the beginning of the Adult Season (17-33), an individual defines and begins adult life.
During the early adult transition (17-22), an individual leaves behind adolescent life and begins to prepare an adult life structure.
Individuals will separate from their family of origin, not necessarily in the physical sense (ie., leaving home), but in the emotional sense – changes in emotional attachment between adult children and parents are necessary for an individual to participate in the adult world.
Individuals will modify or end relationships from their adolescent life to make way for new adult relationships.
Individuals will complete education and start work.

10. Daniel Levinson: Seasons of Life
From the ages of 22 to 28, the individual enters early adulthood, in which he or she will begin to build his or her life structure.
life structure: “the pattern or design of life; a meshing of self-in-world” (Levinson, 1978, p. 278)
Levinson contends that young adults master four major tasks during this period:
Forming a Dream: an individual’s sense of self in the adult world (the core of the life structure)
Forming an Occupation
Forming Mentor Relationships
Forming Love Relationships, Marriage, and Family

11. Daniel Levinson: Seasons of Life
During early adulthood, young adults build and test a preliminary life structure that integrates work, love, and community to attain their Dreams.
The challenge at this stage is to balance the creative exploration of various options for a life structure with a practical desire to make a commitment to a life structure that supports their Dream.
During this time, the challenge early adults face is testing out a life structure of which they do not yet know all the possibilities – that is, they must commit to a certain life structure to determine if it is appropriate and rewarding, but won’t know if the life structure is “appropriate and rewarding” until they have spent time testing it out.

12. Daniel Levinson: Seasons of Life
The age-30 transition occurs between the ages of 28 to 33 years old. At this time, individuals re-evaluate the life structures they have put into place, and determine whether or not they are successfully living out their Dreams.
Levinson (1978) described this re-evaluation as an inner voice saying, “If I am to change my life – if there are things in it that I want to modify or exclude, or things missing I want to add – I must now make a start, for soon it will be too late” (58).
Levinson describes this period as a time when individuals “get real” about the life structures they developed in their 20s, choosing to, perhaps, get married or divorced, have children, or change their jobs before “settling down” in their 30s.

13. Klaus Riegel: Dimensions of Development
In the 1960s, American psychologist Klaus Riegel theorized that development in adulthood does not occur in predictable stages, but is rather an individualized response to both internal and external changes.
Riegel identified four interrelated dimensions of development:
The internal psychological dimension describes emotional maturity and independence, as well as the maturity of mental processes.
The internal biological dimension describes physical and sexual maturity.
The external cultural-sociological dimension describes the expectations and opportunities defined by society.
The external environmental dimension describes the physical, economic, and political environment in which an individual lives.

14. Klaus Riegel: Dimensions of Development
According to Riegel, development occurs when a change in one dimension requires an adjustment in one or more of the other dimensions. For example . . .
When an individual is both physically mature and emotionally prepared for marriage, he or she will do so if he or she is old enough according to the society in which he or she lives, and if he or she can afford to live independently within his or her economic environment.
COMPARATIVELY
An individual may be emotionally mature enough to leave home, but may be financially unable to do so if he or she cannot secure a well-paying job based on his or her economic environment. As a result, the individual may choose to continue living with his or her parents, foregoing marriage until financial stability and total independence are gained.
Since Riegel’s theory integrates internal physical and psychological dimensions with external social and environmental dimensions, it represents an early application of ecological systems theory:
the pace of adult development varies to reflect the influence of a chancing social clock.

15. Socialization for Adulthood
Read pages in your textbook.
Answer questions 5, 6, 7, & 8 found on page 132 of your textbook.