1. JOT2 Task 2: Learning Theories
Intro: This presentation will allow us to adapt lesson plans to fit different learning theories and instructional strategies based on the learners needs and the task. Also, we will look at design theories that could be used to design instruction for the learners.
Western Governor’ s University
Lauren Fleming; Student ID:
Student Mentor: Samantha Spears

2. A: Learning Theories Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism
We will begin by reviewing 3 learning theories: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism . These 3 learning theories are applicable in the instructional design process and guide us to determine and use the most appropriate design theories based on the task and target learning population. As we look at these 3 theories, we will learn an overview of the theories and take a look at situations or classroom examples when this particular learning theory would be appropriate for the type of learners and task.

3. Appropriate for learners who:
Behaviorism
Overview:
Appropriate for learners who:
Knowledge is external to the learner
Behavior is result of stimulus- response
Behavior is observable and measureable
Have little or no prior knowledge
Respond to stimulus
Need to perform procedures or behaviors
-Behaviorism (led by theorists such as Pavlov and B.F. Skinner) is the belief that knowledge is external to the learner and can be measured and observed after behavior is taught through stimulus-response. This learning theory focuses on a measurable behavior that is learned through positive or negative reinforcement. This approach is best suited for skill knowledge/practice in regards to factual items or items with 1 distinct answer or behavior. Example: A student would be rewarded for a correct answer prior to moving on to a new topic.
-Behaviorism is beneficial and appropriate to teach a specific procedure/behavior to learners, to recall facts that have been learned from the teacher, to correct behavior, or in the example of drills/practice. When the learner performs a correct action, behavior, or gives a correct answer the teacher immediately provides a positive reinforcement to continue this behavior. In contrast, teachers can also offer negative reinforcement to correct a behavior. Behaviorism is most appropriate for learners who respond to a teacher directed, stimulus task and who have little or no prior knowledge of the topic. Examples are: learned behavior or classroom procedures, recalling facts, and drill/skill software.
-Discussion: Now that we have an overview of behaviorism and know the type of learners and tasks this would be appropriate for, consider the following classroom situation. Is this behaviorism, why or why not? (Allow for discussion among participants)
A group of first graders are memorizing addition facts. For each correct answer, the students receive a token. After 10 tokens, students can redeem these for a prize.

4. Appropriate for learners who:
Cognitivism
Overview:
Appropriate for learners who:
Teacher guides the learning
Information is “mapped” in the mind
Encourage learner to use strategies
Learn by teacher’s guidance
Respond to visual and verbal instruction
Need modeling and practice of topic/skill
-Cognitivism (led by Gagne and Bloom) is a learning theory that focuses on active mental processing. With this theory, the teacher/instructor guides the learning as they utilize tools to “map” learning into the mind of the learner along with retrieving previously stored knowledge. This theory focuses on how information is stored and retrieved in the mind of the learner-the process. This theory focuses on the learner as being an active part of the instruction, and using systematic strategies to obtain and “map” knowledge (visual aids, outlines, chunks, graphic organizers, etc.)
-This is appropriate and used for learners who learn best when information is presented is multiple formats (visual, auditory) by a teacher. Learners who have prior knowledge of a topic will be led by a teacher through an active process, using systematic strategies. Examples: teacher using visual and verbal cues to gain attention, and relate to prior knowledge. Teachers ask questions to refine thinking of prior knowledge and guiding learners through an activity (with feedback and active learning opportunities).
-Discussion: Now that we have an overview of Cognitivism and know the type of learners and tasks this would be appropriate for, consider the following classroom situation. Is this Cognitivism, why or why not? (Allow for discussion among participants).
Second graders are learning to add numbers of 2 digits. The teacher begins with recalling prior knowledge of place value (tens and ones). Using base ten blocks, the teacher models how when we add the ones digits, 10 ones can be exchanged for 1 rod (1 set of 10). Students are provided with base ten blocks and pictures to practice as the teacher guides the students through several addition problems of adding 2 digit numbers. Students then have an opportunity for small group and independent practice.

5. Appropriate for learners who:
Constructivism
Overview:
Appropriate for learners who:
Knowledge is internal to the learner
Construction of authentic tasks, “learn by doing”
Based off prior experiences and knowledge
Have prior knowledge of topic
Prefer hands on learning
Learn from authentic tasks
-Constructivism (led by Jean Piaget) is the theory that knowledge is “internal” to the learner. Based on knowledge and experiences, the learner can adjust their mental models to CONSTRUCT their own understanding/product of a new topic.
-In education, constructivism is appropriate and beneficial to learners to allow for construction of learning through hands on learning, PBL, research projects, and authentic tasks-sometimes through collaborative learning. For learners who have a prior knowledge of the topic and are hands on learners-constructivism is appropriate. These learning opportunities do not focus on a specific “right” answer. Teachers encourage students to use higher learning strategies-analyze, connect, and create to learn. Examples are: field trips, problem based learning (STEM like units fit well here), and research projects.
-Discussion: Now that we have an overview of Constructivism and know the type of learners and tasks this would be appropriate for, consider the following classroom situation. Is this Constructivism, why or why not? (Allow for discussion among participants).
-A group of 5th graders are learning about area and perimeter in math. They are also learning about plant cells, plant growth, and photosynthesis in science. In collaborative groups, the students are to design a small garden that will be planted on the schools campus. The students must prepare a plan that contains information such as: type of plants, type of food needed for plants, shade/sunlight needed, water needed. In addition students will need to plan for the amount of topsoil (area), and fencing (perimeter) needed for their garden.

6. B: Identified Learning Theory
Lesson Plan: “My Number is Greater!” (Robbins, 2013)
Model and Guided: Cognitivism
Now we will look at one of the learning theories in action. In our lesson plan we will focus on the sections titled “Model” and “Guided.” In these two sections, the learning theory has been identified as Cognitivism. Let’s look at why Cognitivism has been identified in these two sections.

7. Lesson Plan Theory: Cognitivism
Model (Teacher)
Guided (Students)
Use of visual aids
Modeling/Demons tration
Explanations
Constructive Feedback
Students answer critical thinking questions
Students use visual items to recall information
Work through problem to find solution
Refer participants to lesson plan handout
Section 1: Model: In the section titled “Model,” the teacher uses cognitive strategies to “map” the information to the learner. (Discuss the two examples below and how this is cognitive).
-A. “Show their apples with different color blocks and remind students that they have to pay close attention to what the question is asking” (use of visual aids and modeling/demonstration)
-B. “Erik has more apples because he has 2 tens and Jasmine only has 1 ten. 15 is less than 27. We use special symbols to show that 15 is less than < 27. The mouth always points to the bigger number.” (explanation)
Guided: In the section titled “Guided,” the students use strategies (led by the teacher) to practice and recall information. (Discuss the examples below and how it is cognitive).
A. “When we use 2 digit numbers we look at the tens place. Jasmine has 68 apples and Erik has 42 apples. Who has more apples? How do you know? (Jasmine has more because 6 tens are greater than 4 tens) How could I write that? 68 > 42. What if the tens are the same? (look at the ones) When we use 3 digit numbers we look at the hundreds place first. Jasmine has
132 apples and Erik has 245 apples. Who has more apples? How do you know? (Erik because he has 2 hundreds and Jasmine has 1 hundred) How can I write it? What do we write when numbers are the same on both sides, they are equal? 132 = 132: (Students are led by teacher to answer critical thinking questions and explanation)
B. “Divide students into groups of 4. Give each group one large 3 digit number tile. Randomly call on a group to bring their number tile and hold it in front of the class. Randomly call on another group to bring their number tile in front of the class and hold it up. What symbol should we put in the middle? Why?” (answer questions, use of visual items/flashcard to recall knowledge of place value)
In addition to these two areas, “Model” and “Guided,” Cognitivism is underlying in the lesson plan by:
-engaging tasks for a variety of learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic-counting blocks)
-teacher provides instructional support, guidance, and direction throughout lesson
-teacher uses visuals and cues (flashcards and <,> as mouths that open)
-references background knowledge of place value (hundreds, tens, and ones)
-provides opportunities for students to practice (game) with instructional feedback

8. C: Adapted Lesson Plan Learning Theory: Behaviorism
We will now take our original lesson plan and adapt this lesson plan with the Behaviorism learning theory.

9. Lesson Plan Theory: Behaviorism
Model (Teacher)
Guided (Students)
Direct instruction
Teacher led with little conceptual understanding explained or demonstrated
Students receive positive reinforcement for correct answer(s).
Students complete worksheet with measurable data of correct answers.
Refer participants back to copy of the lesson plan. Discuss that we will now work to adapt this lesson plan using the Behaviorism learning theory for the two identified areas.
Model: In the section titled “Model,” the teacher uses Behaviorism to transfer knowledge to the learner. (Discuss the two examples below and how this is behaviorist).
A. CHANGE: Teacher now shows their apples with different color blocks and tells students that one set is larger than the other.
B. CHANGE: Teacher now tells the correct symbol to show greater than, less than, or equal to with little conceptual explanation.
(Note the loss of an explanation to develop conceptual understanding)
Guided: In the section titled “Guided,” the students receive positive or negative reinforcements based on their answer of the math problem presented.
CHANGE: Teacher now states: “When we use 2 digit numbers we look at the tens place. Jasmine has 68 apples and Erik has 42 apples. Who has more apples? Teacher now provides a positive reinforcement for students who answer correctly (such as a sticker system). Teacher then tells students to place the correct symbol and rewards those who get it correct.
This section would be eliminated: How do you know? (Jasmine has more because 6 tens are greater than 4 tens) How could I write that? 68 > 42. What if the tens are the same? (look at the ones)
When we use 3 digit numbers we look at the hundreds place first. Jasmine has132 apples and Erik has 245 apples. Who has more apples? Eliminate: How do you know? (Erik because he has 2 hundreds and Jasmine has 1 hundred) How can I write it? What do we write when numbers are the same on both sides, they are equal? Teacher now tells students to use an equal sign when numbers are the same. 132 = 132: (Note loss of critical thinking opportunities for the student).
B. CHANGE: Rather than participating in a class activity or small group learning “game,” students will now complete a worksheet and use the correct symbol to show greater than, less than, or equal to. Students will receive a score on the worksheet.
In addition to these two areas, “Model” and “Guided,” Behaviorism would be used in the lesson plan by:
-teacher will guide the lesson (students will not be problem solving or answering critical thinking questions)
-student worksheet will be measureable data
-students will receive stickers or points for correct answers

10. D: Appropriate for Setting
Learning Theory: Cognitivism
When comparing the original lesson to the adaptation, the most appropriate learning theory for our learners is Cognitivism (original plan).

11. Appropriate for students: Cognitivism
Learner population: 2nd graders; high ELL population
Students benefit from modeling of concept with explanations
Students need opportunity to discuss and answer critical thinking problems
Students need multiple opportunities to practice with feedback (whole group, small group, and independent practice)
Students benefit from visual aids and verbal explanations (ELL population)
Based on our student population, Cognitivism would be the most appropriate for our learners for the reasons listed on this page

12. E: Use of Design Theories
Wiggins Theory of Backwards Design
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Teaching for Understanding
Design theories can help in the adaptation of lessons and developing effective instruction. In our next 3 sections, we will look at 3 design theories and their effect on instructional design.

13. Design Theories Produce Effective Instruction By:
Example (Gagne’s Nine Events)
Providing structure for learning
Creating clear expectations for students
Providing feedback to students
Focusing on reflection for teacher
Focusing on improved student achievement
Consistency in effective instructional design
Ensure student engagement
Guarantee feedback and assessment
Effective Instruction: The use of design theories such as Wiggins, Gagne’s, or Teach for Understanding help teachers to plan instruction. Design theories help to provide a structure for the teaching and learning environment. While all 3 theories have different characteristics, in general, they focus on student achievement and set expectations for students. In addition, each theory contains elements that focus on providing feedback and evaluation to the learners. When these criteria are in place through the use of a design theory, then effective instruction can and will be designed.
Example: In our district, we often have a large number of new teachers each year. Often, new teachers need assistance in planning effective instruction. With many new teachers in varying grade levels and schools, administrators seek to have consistency in the quality of instruction. In addition, many of our students move multiple times throughout the year between the schools in our small district. We want to ensure that our learners are receiving instruction that is of high caliber, regardless of the school or classroom they may be in. By using a design theory such as Gagne’s 9 events of instruction, a new teacher would have a systematic framework to utilize in planning their lessons. Using these 9 events would ensure that certain items are being met: 1. engaging students by gaining attention 2. informing students of the learning objectives 3. Scaffolding by recalling prior learning 4. presenting the material 5. providing learning guidance 6. eliciting performance 7. providing feedback about performance 8. assessing and 9. enhancing retention and transfer. By using this framework, effective instruction could be planned by all new educators for all students.

14. F: Strengths and Limitations of Design Theories
Wiggins Theory of Backwards Design
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Teaching for Understanding
We will closely examine 3 design theories and their strengths and limitation in planning effective instruction.

15. Wiggins Theory of Backwards Design
Strengths
Limitations
Focus on clear objectives & desired results
Instruction is driven for student success on end result
Students can learn while focused on objectives
Little flexibility to adjust learning for differentiation
Planning can be time consuming for teacher
Limited opportunity for student investigation
Wiggins Theory of Backward Design is a method of instructional design that starts with the end in mind. In Wiggins, the teacher/instructor would first identify the end goal or desired results. Next the teacher would plan assessments that would show evidence of a student achieving these results, and then finally would design lessons. Because of this, the strengths of this design theory would allow a teacher to always focus on the end result throughout all of the lessons. The teacher can collect data for the assessments and knowing what the final evidence or assessment will be, the teacher can drive his/her instruction based on the student data (in relation to achievement towards end goal).
In contrast, there are some limitations to utilizing this design theory to develop instruction. Since there is such a high focus on the end result/objectives, often there is limited opportunity for students to have time for exploration or investigation of the material being taught. Also, the teacher could spend large amounts of time planning the assessment and instruction. With instruction that is hyper-focused on the desired results, this instruction will not be tailored/differentiated to meet the needs of each individual learner.

16. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Strengths
Limitations
Systematic approach
Focus on student engagement
Recalls prior knowledge of students (scaffolding)
Opportunity for practice with guidance
Time consuming for instructor to organize instruction into 9 events
Systematic process does not lend itself to creativity in instruction
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction is a design theory with a systematic approach to instruction. Through nine events, knowledge that is external to the learner can become internal to the learner. These nine events of instruction are: 1. gain attention 2. inform of the objective 3. recall of prior learning 4. present the material 5. provide learning guidance 6. elicit performance 7. provide feedback about performance 8. assess and 9. enhance retention and transfer. Throughout the 9 events, a focus on student engagement exists. Gagne also recalls students prior knowledge in order to scaffold and map new knowledge into the mind of the learner. Due to student engagement and scaffolding, students will be more focused and motivated on the task/content.
Limitations of Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction can be seen as: time consumption for teacher to organize instruction into each of the 9 events, and a rigid process. With such a systematic process, there is not a flexibility for creativity teachable moments.

17. Harvard’s Teaching for Understanding
Strengths
Limitations
Lends itself to differentiated learning
Ongoing formative assessment
Connect knowledge to experience
Material presented in non traditional ways
Planning required for multiple learning styles
Must plan for material accessibility for all students
With Teaching for Understanding (TfU) the framework begins with identifying generative topics and then organizing curriculum around that topic(s). These topics are relevant to learner’s prior knowledge and life experiences, can be approached from varying levels (differentiation), and are engaging to the learner. Teachers then develop goals about the content area. Students are then involved in the learning process in a variety of contexts in order to meet those goals. Throughout these learning opportunities, teachers are providing ongoing feedback to support the student’s learning. Using this framework, students will gain a deeper understanding of the concept and be able to apply it to real world situations.
Some limitations of this design theory are: the instructional design process can be time consuming, some teachers may struggle with presenting material in non traditional ways, and a teacher must plan for a variety of teachers that all students can have access to.

18. G: Appropriate for Instructional Setting
Design Theory: Teaching for Understanding
Based on our learners and instructional setting, Teaching for Understanding framework would be the most appropriate design theory.

19. Teaching for Understanding (TfU)
Setting: 2nd graders; high ELL population
Teacher PLCs use this design to plan instruction
TfU aligns with Common Core Standards
Provides conceptual (in-depth) understanding of greater than and less than
Can connect to real life experiences
Meets the needs of varying learning styles
Based on content, instructional setting, and learner population the most appropriate design theory would be Harvard’s Teaching for Understanding. For the lesson referenced in the presentation (math-greater than/less than) it is extremely important that students gain an in-depth conceptual understanding of place value and comparing values. This skill can be connected to student’s life experiences in order to connect them to the learning and motivate future learning/success. When meeting in PLCs our teachers develop goals for the generative topics and discuss a variety of ways to provide formative assessment throughout the instruction that aligns to that goal. With all of these aspects, the most effective instruction would be designed using this framework.

20. H: Sources

21. Sources
Dick, W., Carey, L, & Carey, J. O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (8th ed.). Pearson. ISBN
Ertmer, P. and T. Newby (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance improvement quarterly 6(4),
Gagne, R.M. (1988). The events of instruction.  In Principles of instructional design (pp ). San Diego: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Robbins (2013). My number is greater. [PDF Document]. Retrieved from Teachers Pay Teachers website: Robbins