1. Reference Points and Driving Skills
Introduction: S-1
Our ability to effectively teach reference point driving to new trainees is a valuable asset. When the light of reference point understanding comes on, it is a wonderful experience for both the trainer and trainee. Reference point driving is the cornerstone of behind-the-wheel training and the foundation of professional driving.
Inservice for Driver Trainers

2. Overview Establish reference points
Factors that affect reference points
Using reference points
Left-hand turns
Right-hand turns
Backing to a line
Curb alignment
Answers are in YELLOW
Today is a refresher for you on
establishing reference points,
factors that affect the location of those points, and
four basic skills for using reference points and instructing the driver on those skills.
There are several handouts to the presentation. As we proceed, notice that the answers to the questions on your Evaluation Sheet (H-1) are indicated in RED in the slide presentation. Handout 2 (H-2) and 3 (H-3) are provided as resource documents for your training.
The answer to the first question comes up quickly. Let’s get started.

3. A reference point is established
Reference Points
DEFINITION
A reference point is established
by visually aligning
two or more points
Presentation:
I. Reference Point Basics  
A reference point is established by visually aligning two or more points.
It is a point or points inside or on the bus aligned with a point or points outside the bus.
Reference points are used for skills such as turning, backing and lane position as well as parking.
Please answer the first question on your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#1 Describe how a reference point is established.
Now let’s work on question #2 on your Evaluation Sheet as we continue.

4. Five Factors Affect the Location
Reference Points
Five Factors Affect the Location
# 1 Seat Adjustment
There are five factors that affect the reference point location.
Reference point locations will vary from vehicle-to-vehicle and are as individual as each driver.
Factor #1 Seat Adjustment
The driver must properly adjust the seat for each bus they drive.
Proper seat adjustment is a process that requires several steps.
The process is described in your Seat Adjustment H-2. H-2 You are encouraged to use this handout later as a reference in your training.
The only way to correctly establish and use reference points is to maintain the same proper seat position at all times.
Driver’s should not “make do” with an incorrect seat adjustment.

5. Five Factors Affect the Location
Reference Points
Five Factors Affect the Location
#2 Driver Height
# 3 Mirror Adjustment
Factor #2 Driver Height
Tall and short drivers use different reference points. They sit differently in the seat.
It is important to adjust the seat and mirrors correctly to make sure each individual has the proper reference.
Factor #3 Mirror Adjustment
All of the reference points that we discuss rely on the proper adjustment and use of the mirror system.
There are set standards for properly adjusted mirrors which enable the driver to access their reference points.
A mirror station can be used for proper mirror H-3
adjustment. As space allows, a permanent and convenient mirror station can be very effective. H-3 is provided should you decide to set up or check your mirror station.

6. Five Factors Affect the Location
Reference Points
Five Factors Affect the Location
#4 Vehicle
Type
#5 Turning
Radius
Factor #4 Vehicle Type
On a conventional bus, the front wheels are in front of the driver.
On a transit bus, the front wheels are behind the driver.
The position of the wheels in reference to the driver turn differently so reference points must be set and adjusted accordingly.
Factor #5 Vehicle Turning Radius:
The distance between the front and back wheels is called the wheelbase.
Buses with a longer wheelbase turn wide and take more space to maneuver.
Buses with a shorter wheelbase take up less room for maneuvers.
Please make sure you made notes on your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#2 Name five factors that affect reference point location.
Are there any questions so far?
Let’s continue…

7. Reference Points Rear Bumper Reference Line of Site reference points
Reference Points Use - Line of Sight
Line of Sight is the path which is in a direct line between
The driver’s eyes.
One or two reference points located inside or outside bus.
The limit line or destination point outside.
Here is an example:
.A properly positioned driver, looks out the left-hand, lower convex mirror.
As a driver looks down the side of the bus, they see the top edge of the stop paddle is in line with the rear lower opening for the rear tires.
This line of sight reference point corresponds to the buses rear bumper being equal to the edge of the backing line or curb.
Now that we’ve discussed the basics of reference points, its time to apply them. You can start making notes on question #3 during this next part.
Use Reference Points to Make Turns
There are five factors that affect Reference Point Turns …
reference points

8. Reference Points: Turns
Factor #1
Lane Position
Lane position
Position 3-5 ft. from the edge of roadway for a right turn, watching tail swing and traffic on the left side of bus.
For left turns, the 3-5 ft. distance from the centerline is a good rule of thumb. Be mindful of tail swing and traffic on the right side of the bus.
3 – 5 Ft

9. Reference Points: Turns
Factor #2 Speed of Bus
Speed of bus
The requirement is 10 MPH or less per WAC (7); however, 5-7 MPH is recommended.
Inconsistent speeds create inconsistent corners that can be too short or too wide.

10. Reference Points: Turns
Factor #3 Speed of Turning
Speed at which the steering wheel is turned
Rapidly turn the wheel 100% and hold until bus pivots around parallel in the lane.
Some drivers turn the steering wheel slowly and others turn very quick.
Push-pull or hand-over-hand are allowed and promote consistency. Palming, underhand and bear claw steering are not allowed.
The speed that the steering wheel is turned results in either a short or wide tracking path. Adjust reference points accordingly.

11. Reference Points: Turns
Factor #4 Wheelbase/Style
Wheelbase/Style
Transit buses usually have a longer wheelbase.
Transits can turn or track later than those with a shorter wheel base.
The driver sits forward of the tires and so has to be aware of wheel placement.
Conventional buses usually have a shorter wheelbase.
They can turn or track sooner that the longer-based buses.
Their wheels are forward in relation to the driver.
Emphasize to trainees that both styles turn differently and most of the reason is the driver placement and perception.

12. Reference Points: Turns
Factor #5
Tail swing
Tail swing
When you turn the bus hard in one direction, an opposite motion takes place at the rear of your bus.
The length of the bus between the
rear axle and rear of the bus,
the wheelbase, and
the turning radius, contributes to the amount of tail swing each bus has.   
Tail swing requires ample space cushion as well as frequent right and left mirror checks.
The combination of the length of the bus between the rear axle and the rear of the bus, the wheelbase, and the turning radius determines the amount of tails wing each bus has.
Make sure that your trainees understand the factors that affect establishing reference points. Ultimately a driver should be able to establish reference points as they change from bus style to bus style.
Are there any questions about the five factors that affect reference point turns?
Please make sure you made notes on your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#3 Name five factors that affect reference point turns
We are going to continue on and you can be ready to answer question #4 as we talk about…

13. Establish Reference Points
Left Turns
Left-hand turns
Left turns have the greatest potential for pedestrian collisions.
Establish reference points for the left-hand turn.
Use a point on the bus at the center of driver’s window, or on the bumper.
Align the the point with an imaginary extension of the center yellow line or closest line of the intersecting lane you are turning into (left side).
Adjust for the wheelbase
For a longer wheelbase bus, you will need more space for the bus to pivot. Turn the steering wheel sooner. This will likely counter steer the rear of the bus.
For a short wheelbase bus, you may be able to wait longer before turning. The reference point on the bus may be at the center of driver’s window or seat back behind the driver.
In a conventional bus, establish a reference point using the front bumper or front mirror system and adjust it as needed.
In a transit bus, the reference point will likely be farther back (driver side window, left front tire reaching the intersecting centerline, etc.).
All buses turn differently, so remind your trainee to adjust their reference points and utilize mirrors frequently.
Are there any questions so far about using reference points for a left-hand turn?
Please take a moment to check your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#4 Describe two possible reference points for a left-hand turn.
You are ALMOST ready to instruct your trainee through a left-hand turn. But wait! Before making the turn:
Remind the driver to clear the intersection.
Wait for traffic to clear.
Watch for pedestrians that can cross from either direction. They may not be visible (behind mirror) for the entire turn.
Instruct the driver to rock-and-roll throughout the turn.
Watch for Pedestrians
Establish Reference Points
Extend imaginary Centerline across Intersection
Use Center of Driver Window or Bumper
Adjust for wheelbase and style of bus

14. Left Turns – Four Steps
Use the centerline of the road you are turning into and draw an imaginary yellow line that extends out and continues across the intersection.
Use the center of the driver window as your reference point on the bus.
Proceed straight ahead until the center of the window lines up with the yellow line. That’s your left turning point.
Turn steering wheel 100% to the left and hold it until the bus pivots around parallel to the lane.
Now this slide describes the four steps to making a left-hand turn. I’m going to give you some time to make notes on question #5
TRAINER NOTE: Monitor your class so that they have time to write.
Now it's time to use those reference points. There are four steps
STEP 1 Use the centerline of the road you are turning into and draw an imaginary yellow line that extends out and continues across the intersection.
STEP 2 Use the center of the driver window as your reference point on the bus.
STEP 3 Proceed straight ahead until the center of the window lines up with the yellow line. That’s your left turning point.
STEP 4 Turn steering wheel 100% to the left and hold it until the bus pivots around parallel to the lane.
Congratulate your trainee on all parts of the exercise done correctly.
Did you get a chance to fill in all the blanks on your Evaluation Sheet? H-1
#5 Describe the four steps for making a left-hand turn.
Now let’s go on to the next skill.

15. Right Turns -Watch For…
Pedestrians and Parked Cars
Right-Hand Turns
Although statistically less pedestrian accidents occur, right-hand turns still require a high degree of skill to execute.

16. Establish Reference Points
Right Turns
Establish Reference Points
A point on the door,
edge of road way,
or parked car/ obstruction
Establish reference points for the right-hand turn.
I will give you a few moments to make some notes on question #6 before we continue H-1
Start by using a point on the service door or door handle to align with:
the edge of the roadway you are turning onto or
the edge of a parked car or other obstruction on the intersecting road you are turning onto.
All buses turn differently, so adjust this reference point as needed and utilize mirrors frequently.
Take a look at your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#6 Describe two possible reference points for a right-hand turn.
Are there any questions?

17. Right Turns – Three Steps
Drive straight ahead until reference point on the bus, aligns with the edge of the roadway.
When these points intersect turn rapidly 100% to the right.
Continue turn until the bus pivots around parallel into the lane you are entering.
Now take a look at question #7 on your Evaluation Sheet.
Go ahead and fill in the blanks using this slide. I will give you a few H-1 moments.
Use reference points for the right-hand turn
Make sure traffic is clear and pedestrians are not in the process of crossing the road. The driver should first rock-and-roll, recheck mirrors, then proceed.
STEP 1 Drive straight ahead until the reference point on the bus, (i.e. door handle, door post) aligns with the edge of the roadway.
STEP 2 When these points intersect it is time to turn rapidly 100% to the right.
STEP 3 Continue the turn until the bus pivots around parallel into the lane you are entering.
Now check your Evaluation Sheet H-1
#7 Describe the three steps for making a right-hand turn.
Are there any questions now that we covered left and right turns?
Use Reference Points for Backing and Curb Alignment…

18. Establish Reference Points
Backing
Rear Bumper Reference
Establish Reference Points
line of sight
Establish Reference Points for Backing to a Line
While seated in a normal driving position, assist the driver in locating a point one foot behind the back of the bus on the ground.
You will use a reference on the driver side and may use one on the passenger side as well.
Two examples of reference points on the bus are:
a point on the stop paddle or light which appears to be lined up with the leading edge of the curb or destination point
2/3 of the way up the forward edge of the rear wheel well molding
Please make a note on your Evaluation Sheet if you have not already done so
#8 Describe two possible reference points for backing a bus to a line. H-1
reference points
Limit line/
destination

19. Backing – Four Steps Approach at 90 degrees; 3 -5 feet
parallel to parking stall.
Align second line of stall with edge
of door or near front right tire.
Make a 100% left turn at the point of alignment and hold until the lines of the stall appear in the left driver side mirror.
Back the bus. Align into the stall and use backing reference points for the rear bumper to limit line.
Use reference points for backing to a line.
Properly set up your bus by approaching your parking stall.
STEP 1 Approach at 90 degrees; 3 -5 feet parallel to parking stall
STEP 2 Align the last or second line of stall with edge of door or near front right tire.
STEP 3 Make a 100% left turn at the point of alignment and hold until the lines of the stall appear in the left driver side mirror.
STEP 4 Back the bus. Align into the stall and use backing reference points for the rear bumper.
Now that we’re finished with backing, are there any questions?
Let’s look at one more skill.

20. Establish Reference Points
Curb
Establish Reference Points
Establish reference points for aligning to curb.
Align bus parallel to a curb so that the front and rear tires are 6-inches from the curb.
From the normal driving position in the driver’s seat, find a line of sight to the curb that intersects with a point on the bus body.
Reference points on the bus body might include items such as:
The handhold on the center of the hood (conventional bus)
The lower edge of the windshield center divider (transit style bus)
Another point on the dash that stays stationary

21. Curb – Pull Away and Park
To Park at the curb:
Signal to pull to curb
Identify hazards
Park 2 – 6 inches from curb
Secure bus
To Pull Away from the curb:
Signal to enter traffic
Watch tail swing and mirrors
Merge when safe
Use reference points when pulling up to or away from a curb.
To park at the curb
Signal, check mirrors and then pull to the curb
Verbally identify hazards
Verbally identify reference point
Park the bus 2 to 6 inches from the curb
Secure the bus
To pull away from the curb
a. Signal to enter traffic
b. Check tail swing and mirrors
c. When safe start merging with front wheels straight ahead then turning onto roadway.
We have finished presenting our four skills and it is time to conclude.

22. Summary Establishing reference points
Factors affecting reference points
Driving skills:
Right turns
Left turns
Backing
Curb parking/alignment
Summary:
Today our discussion about reference points was a brief overview.
We talked about the many factors that go into establishing reference points. Seat adjustment is the starting point and we need to consider that drivers are different sizes. Mirror adjustment is equally important. Then there are of course the variables of vehicle type and turning radius.
We talked about line of site and then we discussed turns. Important factors to all turns are lane position, speed, speed of turning, wheelbase and style of the bus and of course, tail swing.
We talked about some driving skills; left and right turns as well as backing and curb alignment. All these skills started with establishing reference points and then using reference points.

23. Summary Behind the Wheel Workbook
We hope you feel refreshed about reference point driving.
Remember, there is always an updated Behind the Wheel Workbook available online. This workbook has pictures, diagrams and lesson plans for each skill you need to instruct. The link to the workbook is provided in this lesson plan and also on the Power Point Slide
Are there any questions?

24. Evaluation
#1 Describe how a reference point is established. A reference point is established by visually aligning two or more points.
Click to show answer(s)

25. Evaluation
#2 Name five factors that affect reference point location. Seat position Driver height Mirror adjustment Vehicle type Vehicle turning radius
Click to show answer(s)

26. Evaluation
#3 Name five factors that affect reference point turns. Lane position Speed of bus Speed of turning steering wheel, Wheelbase/style of bus Tail swing
Click to show answer(s)

27. Evaluation
#4 Describe two possible reference points for a left hand turn. Center of driver’s window Bumper of bus Imaginary extended center line
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28. Evaluation #5 Describe the four steps for making a left-hand turn.
Click to show answer(s)

29. Evaluation
Use the centerline of the road you are turning into and draw an imaginary yellow line that extends out and continues across the intersection.
Use the center of the window as your reference point on the bus.
Proceed straight ahead until the center of the window lines up with the yellow line. That’s your left turning point.
Turn steering wheel 100% to the left and hold it until the bus pivots around parallel to the lane.
Click to show answer(s)

30. Evaluation
#6 Describe two possible reference points for a right-hand turn. A point on the service door Door handle Edge of the roadway Edge of a parked car or obstruction
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31. Evaluation #7 Describe the three steps for making a right-hand turn.
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32. Evaluation
Drive straight ahead until the reference point on the bus (i.e. door handle, door post) aligns with the edge of the roadway.
When these points intersect it is time to turn rapidly 100% to the right.
Continue the turn until the bus pivots around parallel into the lane you are entering.
Click to show answer(s)

33. Evaluation
#8 Describe two possible reference points for backing a bus to a line. Driver’s window post Stop sign Wheel well Mud flap, curb Parking line/barrier
Click to show answer(s)