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AP Review Session 1: History & Approaches

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1 AP Review Session 1: History & Approaches
History of Psychology Psychological Perspectives Psychological Subfields

2 History of Psychology Philosophical Roots of Psychology
Prescientific Psychology Modern Psychology

3 Philosophical Roots Where does knowledge come from?
Innatism/Nativism vs. Empiricism Innatism/Nativism: we are born with knowledge Empiricism: knowledge comes from experience Debate is the beginning of “Nature vs. Nurture” argument

4 Philosophical Roots Are mind & body separate, or one entity?
Dualism vs. Monism (of mind & body) Dualism: mental phenomena are non-physical; mind & body can interact, but are separate; the mind goes on even after the death of the body Monism: mind cannot be separated from the body; the mind and the body are one

5 Philosophical Roots Socrates Innatism/Nativism Dualism Taught Plato

6 Philosophical Roots Plato Taught by Socrates Taught Aristotle
Innatism/Nativism Dualism

7 Philosophical Roots Aristotle Taught by Plato Empiricism Monism

8 Philosophical Roots René Descartes Innatism/Nativism Dualism

9 Philosophical Roots John Locke
Mind at birth is a tabula rasa (“blank slate”) Empiricism Monism

10 Philosophical Roots Philosopher Summary Socrates Innatist/Nativist
Dualist Plato Aristotle Empiricist Monist René Descartes John Locke

11 Prescientific Psychology
Trephination Phrenology Mesmerization/Mesmerism

12 Prescientific Psychology
Trephination/Trepanation surgery in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull to release "evil spirits" in order to treat various disorders or disturbances

13 Prescientific Psychology
Phrenology Method in which the personality traits of a person were determined by "reading" bumps and fissures in the skull Developed by Franz Gall

14 Prescientific Psychology
Animal Magnetism/Mesmerism Method which produced an "artificial tide" in a patient by having him/her swallow a preparation containing iron, and then attaching magnets to various parts of his/her body in order to treat various disorders or disturbances Practiced by Franz Anton Mesmer

15 Modern Psychological Roots
Wilhelm Wundt Founded psychology based on empirical principles of other sciences like chemistry and physics First psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig in Leipzig, Germany Studied reaction time to stimulus Introduced introspection

16 Modern Psychological Roots
G. Stanley Hall Established first psychology laboratory in the U.S. at Johns Hopkins University (1883) Founded the American Psychological Association (APA; 1892) 1st president of the APA

17 Modern Psychological Roots
Edward Titchener Taught by Wundt Introduced structuralism (as practiced by Wundt before him)

18 Modern Psychological Roots
Margaret Floy Washburn Student of Edward Titchener First woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

19 Modern Psychological Roots
William James Main proponent of functionalism (which was not the creation of any single person) Wrote 1st comprehensive psychological text, Principles of Psychology

20 Modern Psychological Roots
Mary Whiton Calkins Student of William James First woman president of the American Psychological Association (APA) Her research tried to bridge the gap between structuralism and functionalism

21 Modern Psychological Roots
Structuralism Introspection: self-observation of thoughts, desires, sensations, feelings Introduced by Edward Titchener, but his basic ideas were influenced and supported by Wilhelm Wundt, G. Stanley Hall The focus of structuralism is to break down consciousness into individual elemental components and examine those individual components

22 Modern Psychological Roots
Functionalism The most well-known advocate of functionalism was William James, but it was also supported by James Cattell, John Dewey Discouraged introspection because people don’t always know why they do what they do The focus of functionalism is to examine the function of consciousness, to look at why we do what we do and how it aids survival Influenced by evolutionary principles and Darwin

23 Modern Psychological Roots
Psychoanalysis Founded by Sigmund Freud, whose theory of personality emphasized unconscious processes Clinical work led Freud to believe that pathology resulted from negative early experiences and unconscious drives

24 Modern Psychological Roots
Behaviorism Founded by John B. Watson, who rejected the emphasis on conscious and unconscious processes which were difficult to objectively measure Behaviorists thought psychology should focus on the observable aspects of human experience

25 Modern Psychological Roots
Gestalt Psychology Founded by Max Wertheimer “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Focus is to examine consciousness as a holistic entity, instead of something to be broken down into parts Principles are seen primarily in studies of perception

26 Modern Psychological Roots
Cognitive Revolution Set off by publication of a number of research studies examining cognitive processes (including George Miller’s “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”) Paradigm shift was created, at least partially, in response to behaviorism, which minimized thought processes Focus is on internal mental processes like creativity, perception, memory, thinking, and language, etc.

27 Modern Psychological Roots
Humanism Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow The “third force” in psychology (after psychoanalysis and behaviorism) Focus is to examine conscious (as opposed to unconscious) thought, free will, human dignity, and self-actualization

28 Psychological Perspectives
Modern Perspectives Eclecticism

29 Modern Perspectives Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective
Founded by Sigmund Freud Behavior is influenced by unconscious processes which may result from early childhood experiences Important Contributors: Anna Freud, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson

30 Modern Perspectives Behaviorist Perspective
Founded by John B. Watson as a response to Freud’s psychoanalysis and other “unscientific” perspectives Behavior is seen as the result of environmental influences like reinforcement, punishment, and observation Important Contributors: Ivan Pavlov, E. L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, John Garcia

31 Modern Perspectives Humanistic Perspective
Founded by Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers Behavior is the result of striving to become self-actualized and to reach one’s full potential; human nature has a natural tendency towards growth

32 Modern Perspectives Cognitive Perspective
Perception of the environment influences behaviors Important Contributors: George Miller, Jean Piaget, Aaron Beck, Elizabeth Loftus, Albert Ellis, Lev Vygotsky, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Noam Chomsky, Albert Bandura, Alan Baddeley, Daniel Kahneman

33 Modern Perspectives Biological/Biopsychological Perspective
Physical and biological factors influence thoughts and behavior Important Contributors: David Hubel, Torsten Wiesel, Michael Gazzaniga, Roger Sperry, Hermann von Helmholtz

34 Modern Perspectives Sociocultural/Social-Cultural Perspective
Focus is to examine how different people, contexts, and situations influence behavior Important Contributors: Philip Zimbardo, Stanley Milgram, Solomon Asch, Leon Festinger, John Darley, Bibb Latané, Robert Rosenthal

35 Modern Perspectives Evolutionary Perspective
Behaviors and thoughts have developed as a survival mechanism or to enhance reproductive success Influenced by research of Charles Darwin

36 Modern Perspectives Behavior Genetics
Human traits and behavior are influenced by genetics and environment Goal is to try and analyze how responsible each is in the expression of a trait across a population

37 Modern Perspectives Biopsychosocial
Biological, social, and psychological factors need to be considered when examining behaviors and traits The interaction is important for understanding human experience

38 Eclecticism Eclecticism explains thoughts and behaviors by using the theories or techniques of more than one of the perspectives Many psychotherapies are eclectic, because one size does not fit all people or all psychological conditions

39 Psychological Subfields
Basic vs. Applied Research Biopsychology/Biological Psychology Developmental Psychology Cognitive Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Clinical Psychology Counseling Psychology

40 Psychological Subfields
Psychiatry Industrial/Organizational Psychology Educational Psychology School Psychology Quantitative Psychology (Psychometrics) Sport Psychology Forensic Psychology Environmental Psychology

41 Psychological Subfields
Experimental Psychology Positive Psychology Abnormal Psychology Engineering Psychology (Human Factors) Neuropsychology Health Psychology Rehabilitation Psychology

42 Psychological Subfields
Basic vs. Applied Research Basic Research: research done for the sake of furthering scientific knowledge Applied Research: research done to solve practical problems

43 Psychological Subfields
Biopsychology/Biological Psychology Study how the mind and body influence and are influenced by anatomy & physiology Sample Topics: Brain Structures and Chemicals Nervous & Endocrine System Disorders/Diseases

44 Psychological Subfields
Developmental Psychology Study of physical and psychological changes throughout the lifespan Sample Topics: Language development Social development Cognitive development Moral development

45 Psychological Subfields
Cognitive Psychology Seeks to study internal mental processes and thinking Sample Topics: Problem solving Memory Language Creativity Attention Perception

46 Psychological Subfields
Personality Psychology Studies individual differences between people in terms of personality traits, attitudes, and goals Sample Topics: Personality Theories Personality Assessments

47 Psychological Subfields
Social Psychology Studies how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others Sample Topics: Attitude Formation Persuasion Conformity, Obedience Helping

48 Psychological Subfields
Clinical Psychology Study and application of psychological principles to prevent or treat mental, emotional, behavioral disorders Psychological Assessment Psychotherapy (but not medication)

49 Psychological Subfields
Counseling Psychology Very similar to Clinical Psychology and sometimes used interchangeably Deals with more “normal problems” rather than mental health issues Adjustment issues related to moving, divorce, grief

50 Psychological Subfields
Psychiatry Studies how to prevent and treat mental disorders in humans Attend Medical School Have the ability to prescribe medication if needed

51 Psychological Subfields
Industrial/Organizational Psychology Applies psychological concepts to the workplace to improve productivity and quality of work life Sample Topics: Personnel Psychology Motivation Leadership

52 Psychological Subfields
Educational Psychology Studies how to enhance effective teaching and learning They do not work with individual students, but conduct research on the educational institution as a whole

53 Psychological Subfields
School Psychology Applies clinical and educational psychology to the school setting Conduct psychological and psychoeducational assessments Could provide counseling, create support groups, or engage in behavioral interventions Help students dealing with tragedy or crisis

54 Psychological Subfields
Quantitative Psychology/ Psychometrics Applies mathematical and statistical concepts to the study of psychology to acquire and analyze psychological data Sample Topics: Research Analysis Test Development & Analysis

55 Psychological Subfields
Sport Psychology Study psychological and mental factors that influence and are influenced by participation in sports Sample Topics: Motivation Improve Performance Fear of failure

56 Psychological Subfields
Forensic Psychology Applies psychological concepts to the legal system Sample Topics: Criminal profiling Analysis and presentation of evidence Assessing defendant and defendant’s state of mind Jury selection

57 Psychological Subfields
Environmental Psychology Studies how physical surroundings influence human behavior Sample Topics: Personal Space Seasonal Affective Disorder Spatial Layout/Interior Design

58 Psychological Subfields
Experimental Psychology Studies psychological concepts through the use of experiments primarily (or only) Find other methods of gathering information unscientific, inappropriate to use Could be involved in any of the other fields as well; this just relates to study method rather than study topic

59 Psychological Subfields
Positive Psychology Studies optimal human functioning and the strengths and virtues which allow individuals and communities to thrive Sample Topics: Courage Humanity Wisdom Justice

60 Psychological Subfields
Abnormal Psychology Study of abnormal behavior to predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning Sample Topics: Examine individuals with specific disorders DSM Examine effects of genetics vs. environment on disorders

61 Psychological Subfields
Engineering Psychology (Human Factors) Adapts equipment to optimize the effectiveness and efficiency with which human activities are conducted and to improve the general quality of life Sample Topics: Equipment design Make things “user-friendly”

62 Psychological Subfields
Neuropsychology Studies the structure and chemicals of the brain and nervous system and their relation to human behaviors and thoughts Sample Topics: Brain-imaging techniques Lesioning, Surgery

63 Psychological Subfields
Health Psychology Studies how biology, social context, and behavior affect health and illness Sample Topics: Doctor-patient interaction Managing pain and stress

64 Psychological Subfields
Rehabilitation Psychology Assists individuals or their family members with learning how to cope with a disability Sample Topics: Stroke, Brain injury Spinal Cord Injury Parkinson’s Disease Intellectual Disabilities

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