1. Restoration and Reaction

2. Great Britain
Conservative Tories controlled British politics after 1815
They were intent on clearing away radicalism in the kingdom
Parliament remained unrepresentative

3. Landed interests passed the Corn Laws
Democratic movements agitated for reform
A peaceful gathering in 1819 in Manchester was met with armed forces (Peterloo massacre)

4. Germany Metternich dominated politics through the German Confederation
Idealistic youth student nationalists formed the Burschenshaft to celebrate German culture and discuss political issues
Metternich convinced the Confederation to issue the Carlsbad Decree

5. Russia
Army officers influenced by revolutionary ideology had formed the Decembrist Society to push for a constitutional government
In 1825, the Decembrist Revolt agitated for the accession of Constantine to the throne, instead of his brother Nicholas

6. Nicholas crushed the revolt and ruled Russia with “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality”
He relied on a new secret police, religious uniformity and the imposition of Russian language and culture

7. The “Isms”
The period between can be termed the age of ideologies
Such ideologies or “isms” influenced how people viewed events and motivated them into action

8. Conservatism
Conservatism should not be equated with complete rejection to change
Conservatives believed that human nature was driven primarily by passion

9. Edmund Burke became a leading advocate for change through adaption
Humans are capable of reason, but often employ it as an excuse for self interest actions
Customs and traditions act as checks on the passions and should not be discarded lightly

10. Joseph de Maistre demonstrated how once the revolution in France broke from its tradition of church, monarchy, and nobility, it descended into violent chaos
Conservative philosophy supported the restoration governments of the post-1815 order

11. Liberalism
Liberalism acted as a powerful philosophy of change throughout the 19th century
Liberals embraces laissez-faire principles of capitalism and strong protection of private property
Liberals favored the social contract theory of limited government

12. Many Liberals came from the middle class and supported a more representative government
Wanted to see an expansion of suffrage, but only for property owners

13. Jeremy Bentham Articulated for utilitarianism
Good is defined as providing pleasure and evil as causing pain
The purpose of government was to promote “the greatest good for the greatest number”

14. Socialism, Republicanism, and Feminism
Self-proclaimed radicals and republicans embraced the “principles of 93”
Many were drawn from intellectual circles or from the working class
Favored equality and universal male suffrage

15. Republicanism shaded off into socialism
Socialists wished to replace the capitalist system with a system of social and economic planning
One of the first socialists, Robert Owen, built a model factory in New Lanark, Scotland to better provide for his workers needs

16. Most early socialists were French, reflecting the legacy of the revolution
Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier embraced an ethos of cooperation and shared property
Louis Blanc created the idea of “national workshops” for the working class

17. Many advocates of women’s rights drew from the Enlightenment tradition of individual rights and social equity
Flora Tristan argued that the oppression of women sprung from the unequal ownership of property
Numerous female writers demonstrated that women could exercise independent creative voices
By 1850, many feminists had established a clear agenda for the movement

18. Nationalism
Proved to be the most combustible ideology of the 19th century
Initially acted as a cultural revival and celebration of traditions

19. Germany Long divided, experienced a wave of cultural nationalism
Johann Gottfried Herder replaced the political-judicial conception of state with an organic folk-nation best represented by the term Volksgeist, or spirit of the people

20. Germans celebrated their music and folklore
Cultural Nationalism eventually took on political overtones
German philosopher Hegel glorified the national state as the march of destiny through history
History consisted of a class of opposing ideas, called the dialectic

21. Many nationalists formed secret societies to promote their agenda of unity
In Italy, Guiseppe Mazzini first joined the secretive Carbonari before forming Young Italy in 1831

22. Eastern Europe also experienced a revival of national tradition
Intellectuals representing the diverse group of Slavic speakers looked to common linguistic and cultural traditions and advocated pan-Slavism
Pan-Slavism inspired uprisings in the period

23. Romanticism
A literary, musical, and artistic movement dominating European culture in the first half of the 19th century
Reacted to the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and science

24. Romanticism stressed:
Emotions
Intuition
Nature
Nationalism
Religion
The unique individual