1. AFRICAN ART

2. Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe
Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe. Southeastern Zimbabwe. Shona peoples. c CE. Coursed granite blocks.
The ruins of Great Zimbabwe – the capital of the Queen of Sheba, according to an age-old legend – are a unique testimony to the civilization of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries. The city, which covered almost 1,800 acres of present-day southeastern Zimbabwe, was an important trading center and was renowned from the Middle Ages onwards. Its most impressive structure, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 36 feet extending approximately 820 feet, making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and 9.1 m (30 ft) high, was constructed between the two walls.

3. Great Mosque of Djenne. Mali. Founded c. 1200 CE; rebuilt 1906-1907
Great Mosque of Djenne. Mali. Founded c CE; rebuilt Adobe.
The Great Mosque of Djenné is the largest mud brick building in the world and is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, albeit with definite Islamic influences. The Great Mosque is located in the city of Djenné, Mali on the flood plain of the Bani River. The first mosque on the site was built in the 13th century, but the current structure dates from As well as being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. The Great Mosque is unusual among West African mosques in that its site was not sacred prior to its establishment — the location was previously occupied by a palace. Annual repair of the mosque (using adobe, a mud-based mortar) is almost a festival and the entire community of Djenné takes an active role in it.

4. Great Mosque of Djenne. Mali. c. 1200 CE; rebuilt 1906-1907. Adobe.

5. Great Mosque of Djenne (interior). Mali. c. 1200 CE; rebuilt 1906-1907
Great Mosque of Djenne (interior). Mali. c CE; rebuilt Adobe.

6. Wall plaque, from Oba’s palace. Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria)
Wall plaque, from Oba’s palace. Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria). 16th century CE. Cast brass.
There are over 900 plaques of this type in various museums in England, Europe and America. They are thought to have been made in matching pairs and fixed to pillars in the Oba's palace in Benin City. The plaques show aspects of Benin court life in the sixteenth century, shortly after Europe's first contact with West Africa. Benin society was highly structured with a King (Oba) who was believed to be a direct descendant of Oranmiyan, the legendary founder of the dynasty. The Oba was also the head of government, collecting taxes, controlling trade and was the owner of all land in the country. This plaque shows an Oba surrounded by his attendants, two of whom are depicted holding up their shields in a formal protective stance. Only the Oba was allowed to be shaded in this way within the city. The composition can therefore be seen as referring to the weight of office and to the responsibility of the people to assist their ruler.

7. Oba of Benin Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria).

8. Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool) Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana). c
Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool) Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana). c CE Gold over wood and cast-gold attachments.

9. Ndop (portrait figure) of king Mishe miShyaang maMbul
Ndop (portrait figure) of king Mishe miShyaang maMbul. Kuba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c Wood.
Ndop figures are idealized portraits of individual Kuba rulers. This ndop, considered the oldest in existence, displays the king’s symbol, a drum with a severed hand. As in other ndop figures, the ruler sits cross-legged on a raised platform. His face expresses both aloofness and composure. The short sword in his left hand (held with handle out, indicating the nonaggressive pose of the nyim) and the belts, arm bands, bracelets, shoulder ornaments, and special projecting headdress are all elements of royal regalia. Ndop figures were believed to represent and honor the spirit of the nyim and serve as a point of contact with his spirit.

10. Ndop (portrait figure) of king Mishe miShyaang maMbul
Ndop (portrait figure) of king Mishe miShyaang maMbul. Kuba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c Wood.

11. Power figure (Nkisi n’kondi)
Power figure (Nkisi n’kondi). Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. late 19th century. Wood and metal.
These figures are, in effect, vessels for containing spiritual forces. When brought to life, they are believed to have the power to uncover sources of affliction, to heal, to protect, and even to punish.
A nkisi begins with a wooden sculpture, often anthropomorphic or zoomorphic in shape. Once carved, it becomes the responsibility of a ritual specialist, called a nganga, to activate the figure. The nganga fills special cavities in the sculpture, generally in the head and stomach region, with materials such as ash, soil, herbs, and animal parts that are attributed medicinal and magical properties. Over time, as clients approach the nganga seeking solutions to problems or resolutions to disputes, various objects are added to the nkisi’s exterior.

12. Other Nkisi ‘Power Figure’ examples

13. Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire)
Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire). Late 19th to early 20th century CE Wood and pigment.
This mask from the Baule people of the Ivory Coast probably falls into a special grouping known as ‘portrait masks’, Kpan or Mblo. They are said to portray an honored person of the village who is celebrated during a ceremonial dance known as “Mblo”. It is an aesthetic performance in which this beautifully carved mask would be worn with a multicolored costume and danced in the most graceful manner by either the person it represents or a relative. The costume would have been attached to the mask by cords that was threaded through the holes at the back of the mask. These masks are danced to entertain during days that the Baule do not work and they will also appear to honor important visitors to the village. This classic mask recalls the artistry of the Baule artists of the past.

14. Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire)
Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire). Late 19th to early 20th century CE Wood and pigment.
The refined and finally carved face may be similar to the person for whom the mask was originally carved to represent. The hair or headdress on this mask is presented by a high, pinned up hair raised from the forehead. The closed eyes and pursed mouth indicate propriety and respect in keeping the eyes downcast with a sense of reserve that a mature woman would possess.
Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

15. Other Mblo masks

16. Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Republic of the Congo)
Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Republic of the Congo). Late 19th-20th Century. Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal.
This mask represents a beautiful young woman adorned with tattoos, earrings and an elaborate coiffure. The original Chokwe name (pwo) referred to an adult woman who had given birth. The more recent name, mwana pwo, probably adopted under European influence, emphasizes youthful, feminine beauty. The artist carved this mask with very delicate, even, thin walls from the wood Alstonia. The surface is a rich, reddish brown color, probably obtained from a mixture of red clay and oil. The half-closed eyes placed in large, concave sockets are covered with white clay (kaolin). The eyes, slender nose, elliptical mouth and hemispherical ears are delicately carved on a face delineated by a softly modeled forehead and concave chin. The major components of the fiber coiffure are a braided headband and a heavy fringe at the rear.

17. Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Republic of the Congo)
Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Republic of the Congo). Late 19th-20th Century. Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal.
Under the eyes are tattoos known as masoji, signifying tears. Pwo or mwana pwo is one the most popular dancing masks among the Chokwe. Because they follow matrilineal descent, the Chokwe dance pwo to honor the founding female ancestor of the lineage. A male dancer is dressed like a woman in a costume of braided fiber that completely covers his body and hides his identity. He wears a loincloth, carries a fan and moves in slow, precise steps to emulate a woman. When the mask becomes unusable, it is discarded. When a masquerader dies, the mask is buried with the dancer.

18. Bundu mask. Sande Society, Mende peoples (West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia). 19th to 20th century. Wood, cloth, and fiber.
This type of mask is used by the sande female society on special occasions, which would include: solemn anniversaries, during funeral ceremonies, and in the initiation that makes it possible to become a sande. On the latter occasion, the masks are worn by women who have a certain standing within the society, to receive the younger women at the end of their three month's reclusion in the forest. The long costume, that completes the mask, serves to disguise the whole body. This mask represents the spirit of fertility and is considered the incarnation of the female waters. The masks always have female characteristics, even when they incarnate the male ancestral spirit. The different elements that compose the masks of this type, the half-closed and lengthened eyes, the contours of the lips, the slim nose, the serenity of the forehead, the complexity of the headdress and the presence of neck and nape refer not only to aesthetic values, but also to philosophical and religious concepts.

19. A bundu mask dances in a welcome ceremony.

20. Ikenga (shrine figure). Igbo peoples (Nigeria). c.19th to 20th century. Wood.
Ikenga (Igbo literal meaning "place of strength") is a horned Alusi (deity) found among the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria. It is one of the most popular symbols of the Igbo people, and the most common cultural artifact. Ikenga is mostly maintained, kept or owned by men and occasionally by women of high reputation and integrity in the society It symbolizes the strength of the right arm (which symbolizes hard work), success in farming, having many children, or success in war. Ikenga figures can be indentified with cylindrical-like bodies, and two long horns.

21. Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Republic of Congo). c.19th to 20th century. Wood, beads, and metal.
Lukasa memory boards are hourglass-shaped wooden tablets that are covered with multicolored beads, shells and bits of metal, or are incised or embossed with carved symbols. The colors and configurations of beads or ideograms serve to stimulate the recollection of important people, places, things, relationships and events as court historians narrate the origins of Luba authority. A lukasa serves as an archive for the topographical and chronological mapping of political histories and other data sets. Lukasa are approximately the same size (20-25 centimeters long and about 13 centimeters wide) and have the same rectangular dish shape. Beads are arranged in three ways: a large bead surrounded by smaller beads, a line of beads, and one isolated bead. Each configuration lends itself to the transmission of certain kinds of information. Board surfaces also have holes and lines cut into them.

22. Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Republic of Congo). c.19th to 20th century. Wood, beads, and metal.

23. Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Republic of Congo). c.19th to 20th century. Wood, beads, and metal.

24. Aka elephant mask. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grassfields region). c
Aka elephant mask. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grassfields region). c.19th to 20th century. Wood, woven raffia, cloth, and beads.
Elephants are the world's most commanding land creatures, unsurpassed in grandeur and power. Thus elephant masks, while rare in Africa, are fully appropriate symbols of important leaders or, at least, their respected deputies or messengers. The societies that use these masks in fact act as agents of chiefs' control and as formal royal emissaries. Elephant societies that originated in Bamileke and spread elsewhere in the Grasslands consist of three graded ranks attained by wealth. These elephant masks, signifying kingship and wealth, were worn by the powerful members of the Kuosi regulatory society, which included members of royalty, wealthy title holders, and ranking warriors of the Bandjoun kingdom of western Cameroon. Such masks are often worn with robes of dark woven fiber covered with small fiber knobs or indigo and white tie-dyed "royal" cloth. Costumes also include beaded vests with broad belts and leopard pelts attached at the back. Since a chief owns or controls the masking society, both leopards and elephants are apt metaphors for symbolic impersonation.

25. Bamileke dancers with elephant masks
Bamileke dancers with elephant masks. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grassfields region). c.19th to 20th century. Wood, woven raffia, cloth, and beads.

26. The King and other society members in Bandjoun, 1930.

27. Reliquary figure (nlo bieri). Fang people (southern Cameroon) c
Reliquary figure (nlo bieri). Fang people (southern Cameroon) c.19th to 20th century. Wood.
Fang reliquary guardian figures are among the ritual objects of bieri, an association devoted to the ritual honoring of ancestors in order to obtain their goodwill and ensure the continuity between the living and the dead. Figurative sculptures were placed on top of bark boxes containing the bones of revered individuals, such as male founders of villages and women who have borne many children.
To the Fang, these figurative sculptures were replaceable, whereas what they guarded - physical presence of the ancestors such as bones and skulls—was irreplaceable. During the ritual practices of bieri, these figures were removed from their boxes and deployed almost like puppets in ceremonies that dramatized the raising of the dead.

28. Other nlo bieri reliquary figures

29. Veranda post: equestrian figure and female caryatid
Veranda post: equestrian figure and female caryatid. Olowe of Ise (Yoruba peoples). Before Wood and pigment.
This veranda post is one of four sculpted for the palace at Ikere by the renowned Yoruba artist Olowe of Ise (who died in 1938). It is considered among the artist's masterpieces for the way it embodies his unique style, including the interrelationship of figures, their exaggerated proportions, and the open space between them. While the king is the focal point, his portrayal suggests a ruler's dependence on others. The stately female figure behind the king represents his senior wife. Her large scale and pose, with hands on the king's throne, underscore her importance. She had the critical role of placing the power-invested crown on the king's head during his coronation. Moreover, the senior wife used political acumen and spiritual knowledge to protect the king's interests during his reign. The small figures at the king's feet represent a junior wife, the flute-playing trickster-god Esu, and a fan bearer, now missing.