1. Behavioural explanation for the acquisition of phobias
4.1.4 Psychopathology:
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias: the two-process model, including classical and operant conditioning
Learning outcomes: by the end of the session you will:
Identify the key components of conditioning
Apply the concepts to scenarios
Describe the conditioning process of Little Albert
Describe the two process model as an explanation for phobias
Consider some evaluation points to this explanation

2. What is the Behaviourist Approach?
RECAP! Key words on paper…
Founded by JB Watson in 1915, the behaviourist approach studies observed behavioural responses of humans and animals.
The behaviourist approach believes we learn to behave in response to our environment, either by stimulus-response association, or as a result of reinforcement.
Important contributors to the behaviourist approach are Ivan Pavlov, with his theory of classical conditioning, and B.F. Skinner, and his work into operant conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner

3. Conditioning ASSOCIATION CONSEQUENCES
Conditioning refers to a process of shaping or changing a behaviour
The two most common behavioural explanations for the acquisition of phobias are classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Learning through…..
Learning through…..
ASSOCIATION
CONSEQUENCES

4. ‘Little Albert’ Classical conditioning
A basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus known as the unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus and elicits the same response.
‘Little Albert’

5. ‘Little Albert’ – place the words
Rat
No fear of rats
Loud bang
Fear/anxiety
Rat
Loud bang
Fear/anxiety
Rat
Fear/anxiety

6. Little Albert and conditioning a fear
Neutral stimulus (NS)  no fear of rats (before conditioning)
A loud bang (UCS)  causes fear and anxiety (UCR) (before conditioning)
rat (CS) and loud bang (UCS)  fear (UCR) (during conditioning)
rat (CS)  fear (CR) (evidence of conditioning)

7. Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning = changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance
Once a fear is established, the individual then avoids the object or situation that produces the fear
This in turn reduces the anxiety
It also strengthens the fear and makes it more likely that this object/situation will be avoided in the future.
Negative reinforcement

8. The two-process model
In his two-process model of phobia acquisition, Mowrer (1960) suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
A person who is terrified of spiders is likely to run away when they see one.
The escape and consequent reduction of fear acts as a negative reinforcer, increasing the likelihood that they will continue to avoid spiders in future.

9. The two-process model
In this way, the phobia is maintained. When an individual avoids a situation which is unpleasant, the behaviour results in a pleasant consequence which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated.
Mowrer (1960) suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have suffered if we had entered its presence or remained there.
This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.

10. Complete the activities on the hand out to demonstrate your understanding of conditioning

13. For each scenario identify the process of Classical conditioning
Harry has a phobia of swans. As a child he was bitten by a swan whilst feeding it bread. Harry feels anxious when he thinks about swans and becomes very afraid whenever he sees one close up. He now avoids swans.

14. Scenario 2
Sarah suffers from agoraphobia. She is a keen A level student but is struggling to attend college because of the anxiety she suffers when attempting to leave the house in the morning. Her phobia began shortly after being mugged.

15. Scenario 3
As a child Rick used to visit the dentist for painful dental treatment, the dentist had a big grandfather clock in the waiting room. To this day whenever he hears the tick of a grandfather clock he starts to feel anxious.

16. Evaluation….how do we evaluate a theory / explanation?
Is there an alternative explanation to learning phobias?
Has everyone with a phobia had a traumatic/bad experience?
Why are the most common phobias those of snakes/spiders/heights/water?
A phobia is initially acquired through association. However, this doesn’t explain why individuals continue to feel fearful, nor does it explain why individuals avoid the feared object.

17. The two-process model
A - The two-process explanation for phobias can explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias which have been associated with an unpleasant event and can therefore account for some unusual phobias such as button or zip phobia.
L - It does not, however, account for the fact that some phobias are far more frequent than others in the general population (despite the fact that there is no evidence that they have been more frequently associated with aversive events).
L - It would appear that it only covers certain classes of stimuli (those dangerous to pre-technical humans, such as snakes and other animals) are more easily conditioned than others.
L - A good explanatory theory needs to take account of factors such as evolution and biological preparedness in addition to classical and operant conditioning –what is this suggesting the explanation is? What's the term to use here?!

18. C – is there an alternative theory. Are the cognitive elements
C – is there an alternative theory? Are the cognitive elements? Is this an alternative explanation?
Could it be that cognitive characteristics of phobias are a bi-product of its behavioural characteristics?
How could we use the social learning theory?
Could we use a psychodynamic explanations for phobias?
T – how can we test this explanation? Is it something that we can see?
Using your resources, ensure that you have an evaluation of the Behavioural explanation to phobias in your notes - pg23 in your packs
There are additional “apply” questions in GHG…
Alternatively cognitive aspects may not require learning at all. We may be 'hard-wired' to focus our attention on anything that provokes anxiety. That would be quite sensible actually as most things that cause us anxiety are actually dangerous
SLT = A child might see a parent react fearfully to something, avoid it and so reduce their anxiety. As their parent (particularly the same-sex parent) is a good model, a child may imitate this behaviour. They are likely to be reinforced for this avoidance, both by direct reinforcement following their own anxiety reduction and vicariously from seeing the parent's anxiety reduced.
In psychodynamic theory, displacement occurs when we redirect an emotion from one person, object or situation to another. It is possible that sometimes a phobia can be the result of a displaced anxiety on to something easier to deal with. Fear of zombies may for example be a displaced fear of death following the death of a loved-one.

19. Extension….
Outline and evaluate the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias (12 marks) ! Plan !