Southeast Asia A Land of Bamboo and Bronze

Southeast Asia A Land of Bamboo and Bronze
Chapter 6 takes us to Southeast Asia, where we examine some music from regions in Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia. Vietnam Thailand Indonesia © Taylor & Francis

UPDATE MAP Southeast Asia Map
Southeast Asia is divided into two basic regions: Mainland and Island (or Maritime) Southeast Asia. Colonization and internal histories made 11 indepenent states All except Thailand colonized Timor very new Many ethnic groups! © Taylor & Francis

Background Preparation
Mainland SE Asia includes the countries of Burma (known today as Myanmar), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore. The latter is an island nation, but considered part of the mainland, while Malaysia is considered partly Island SE Asia as well, but usually discussed with mainland countries geographically. Island SE Asia includes Indonesia, Philippines, Brunei, and East Timor. Many ethnic groups – with so many island cultures, total around 200 Population densities: lots of migration to cities in 20th cent. Safety, opportunities Infrastructure varies widely: Singapore vs. Laos “Traditional” culture thrives in smaller villages Buddhism dominates the mainland, though Malaysia is an Islamic nation. Most of island SE Asia is Muslim, though Christianity has a strong presence in some areas, i.e., Philippines. Hinduism is still found, mostly as an influence on Buddhist practices, but also as the main religion of the island of Bali in Indonesia. Wet monsoons occur throughout this region, usually from May to September. It is hot and humid most of the year, though the northern areas of mainland SE Asia can get quite cool, even freezing in some upland areas. Rice is a staple food throughout SE Asia and an important economic production. A large variety of rice exists, though jasmine and glutinous (or “sticky”) rice are most common. Sticky rice, most common in Laos and not much known in the west, is eaten with the hands and formed into a “scoop” to pick up other foods and eat. Mainland and Island Tropical climate Agriculture and Rice Bamboo & bronze © Taylor & Francis

Planning the Itinerary
200 ethnic groups makes prospect of musical exploration daunting! Many states with kingdoms with aristocratic courts – helped to develop “classical” traditions Rural areas important as well, but simpler music Differences between highland and lowland music Instrument materials: Bronze, bamboo Bronze metallurgy extremely old – 2000, BCE. Major art forms: Instrumental ensemble traditions Epic narratives Theater Patronage and popular music Many states with kingdoms with aristocratic courts – helped to develop “classical” traditions Dance, theater, ritual But, music traditions thrive in villages, with divisions among low, highland populations (ethnic minorities Chinese migrants in many areas, often retain own traditions: operas, etc. Lots of pop music finds its way into all areass Makes it hard to categorize music With regards to music, many instruments are made utilizing bamboo and bronze. Bronze is used for numerous percussion instruments, the most famous of these being the gamelan from Indonesia, but is also prominent in mainland traditions, particularly in Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia. Bronze Buddha statues are also a major use of the material. Flutes and many percussion instruments are commonly made from bamboo, which has numerous uses throughout Asia. One of the most common, but peculiar for Westerners, is the use of bamboo as scaffold for construction projects. This occurs in South and East Asia as well. Major art forms: Instrumental ensemble traditions Epic narratives Theater – often combines all elements above Leather puppet theater widespread Vietnam’s water theater Patronage: royal courts traditionally – with decline of these, state support, Villages left on own Westernized pop music as threat to local arts, music Started with ballroom dance music, continues with modern pop © Taylor & Francis

UPDATE MAP Southeast Asia Map
Southeast Asia is divided into two basic regions: Mainland and Island (or Maritime) Southeast Asia. Colonization and internal histories made 11 independent states All except Thailand colonized Timor very new Many ethnic groups! © Taylor & Francis

Site 1: Upland Bronze Gongs Site 2: Tài Tử Chamber Music
Vietnam Our first two music sites are from Vietnam. Main rivers: Red, Mekong Site 1: Upland Bronze Gongs Site 2: Tài Tử Chamber Music © Taylor & Francis

Arrival: Vietnam Upland–Lowland Culture
Chinese, French occupation and influence Vietnam War Mountain ranges run from north to south Two major rivers 87 million people Most live in lowlands (viet), minorities live in highland, rural areas Upland culture consists mostly of hilltribe minorities and is very rural with a great diversity of cultural practices. Lowland culture is comprised mostly of farmers (cultivating rice), though several cities as well. Predominantly Viet, lowland culture has much influence from China as Vietnam was essentially a Chinese colony for a thousand years. Three distinct regions: North: Hanoi, ancient capital – several important musics, including puppet theater. Center is heart inperial city of Hue, seat of Nguyen dynasty – 19th cent to 1945 – Last emperor abdicated in 1945 Bao Dai South: Ho Chi minh City – “youngest” culture, least formal People in moutains are different ethnic groups Americans are most familiar with this country due to the Vietnam War (roughly 1964–1975). This civil war between the north (Communist) and the south (US supported) escalated throughout the 1960s and inspired numerous protests throughout the United States as more and more Americans were sent overseas as soldiers. The most noted of these protests was at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, where four students were killed on May 4, 1970. However, Vietnam has been occupied variously by Chinese, France (was colony), its history altered by many events. Many parts are quite modern © Taylor & Francis

Site 1: Upland Bronze Gongs: Jarai ethnic group
First Impressions Repetitive ringing What music do you associate with this? Aural Analysis Interlocking construction Strong tonal center Simple duple meter [PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.9] First Impressions: The repetitive ringing sound is due to the majority of instruments being metallic gongs. 30 musicians, walking in circle Aural Analysis: Each musician has a single gong that he plays in coordination with the other gongs to create the melody. This interlocking construction works similar to a bell choir, each performer waiting for their “note” in the melody before ringing the bell. Some gongs are flat and others have a “boss” or bump/knob in the center. The gong is struck with either a beater or the side of a fisted hand. The type of gong, manner of performance and contexts for performance all depend on the ethnic group and the particular use of the music. How does this relate to Siku ensemble? Drums, cymbals also present Members of the Jarai ethnic group in Vietnam’s Central Highlands © Taylor & Francis

Higland gong ensemble © Taylor & Francis

Cultural Considerations
The interlocking construction requires that each musician “cooperate” with the other performers. Each person contributes equally to the overall group. Ethnomusicologists often cite such interdependent musical production as reflective of communal social organization. Gong ensembles are found among many upland Vietnamese ethnic groups but are not typical of the lowland Viet population. Where did gong culture originate in Vietnam? Dance traditions, often animistic in nature, are frequently performed along with such ensembles. The dances are usually group performances as well, strengthening the social cohesion of the community. No disctinction between “musician” and non-musician Gong ensembles are often considered to have a strong connection to the spirit world. They are played for various ritual activities, i.e., funerals, as well as the “Buffalo Sacrifice” that is a common ritual found throughout mainland Southeast Asia. Raises questions about cultural relativism Many unanswered questions remain about the relationship between upland and lowland cultures. While bronze metallurgy has been dated to around 2000 B.C.E., it is unclear which culture developed it first. Are the upland peoples the remnants of the original inhabitants of Southeast Asia, whose ancestors were pushed from their lowland homes by advancing peoples (the early ancestors of the Viet) coming from the north? Because the lowland Viet make little use of bronze and play instruments that reflect Chinese influence, it is tempting to conclude that the upland peoples reflect the earliest layer of musical culture in Vietnam. Others argue, however, that upland cultures have always been at the margins of Vietnamese society and have absorbed and preserved aspects of lowland culture no longer prominent there. That would suggest that upland cultures reflect what is called “marginal survival,” in which aspects of mainstream culture now lost are preserved in outlying areas, where culture changes more slowly. At present, however, there is no way to prove either theory. In 2005 the Central Highlands were designated as “The Space of Gong Culture” in the Third Proclamation of UNESCO’s “Masterpieces of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity” program.(Miller) Large cooperative ensembles Particular to upland ethnic groups Often accompanies dance Common at festivals and funerals Buffalo sacrifice © Taylor & Francis

Site 2: Tài Tử Chamber Music
First Impressions How does this compare to your expectations of what music “should” sound like? “Flexible”feeling [PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.10] Define “chamber” ensemble First Impressions: The “flexible” feeling is due to the frequent bending of tones in the melody. This is accomplished by pressing on the string to change the tension and is particular to the zither and plucked lutes (see below). The latter have high frets and loose strings to encourage such ornamentation. The neck on the guitar pictured in the slide has been modified to achieve a similar construction that allows for this performance technique. Notice the “scooped” frets on this Vietnamese guitar © Taylor & Francis

Dan kim, Dan tranh, Dan co (nhi)
© Taylor & Francis

Site 2: Tài Tử Chamber Music
Aural Analysis Small string ensemble Frequent tone bending Modal structure – pentatonic Closed rhythmic structure Final beat most accented, not first Four beat structure in this example, claps of song lang on beats 3, 4 Heterophony Short melody, repeated Southern Vietnam: similar to the Chinese sizhu “silk and bamboo” chamber music from Shanghai (see Chapter 7). This type of ensemble primarily includes stringed instruments: đàn kim (lute), đàn tranh (zither) đàn cò (fiddle) The song lang (“slit drum” clapper) marks a rhythmic cycle (sixteen beats in the audio example). This begins after a short introduction in free rhythm. Vietnamese music is generated from a complex modal system. Each mode has its own set of pitches (basically five), a hierarchy of strong and weak tones, required ornamentation, and associated extra-musical meanings. resembles the raga system of South Asia more than music processes found in East Asia, even though East Asia is the source of Vietnamese instruments. Certain pitches in each of the Vietnamese modes are outside the Western tempered tuning system Another aspect of Vietnamese music that relates to India is the use of a closed cycle of beats similar to the Indian tala; the clicks of the song lang clapper articulate points in these cycles. Unlike the Indian cycle, however, but similar to the Thai cycle, the final beat is the most accented. Our example is organized in a four-beat cycle called nhip tu, and the song lang is struck on beats 3 and 4. It may be easier to feel and hear this cycle in sixteen beats instead of four, counting the clapper strikes on beats 12 and 16. Another distinctive feature of Vietnamese rhythm is its tendency toward rhythmic syncopation (i.e., toward shifting the accent to a weak beat in a measure). The musicians in a tai tu ensemble all play the same fundamental melody but add different kinds of ornamentation typical of their instrument, resulting in the phonic structure called heterophony. Before the group begins playing the tune, each musician, in succession, improvise a short introduction in free rhythm. Improvisation of this sort is atypical of the rest of Southeast or East Asia, lending further credence to the view that Vietnamese culture, while deeply influenced by East Asia, sometimes exhibits traits more typical of South Asia where a freely rhythmic introduction is common in classical music performance. The phonic structure is heterophonic as each instrument simultaneously plays the same melody, but with variations. Compare this example with the Chinese sizhu (silk & bamboo) [CD 1.17], which also uses a heterophonic structure. © Taylor & Francis

Vietnam: Nhac Tai Tu Amateur Chamber Music
Chapter 6: Site 2 Vietnam: Nhac Tai Tu Amateur Chamber Music TIME LISTENING FOCUS 0′00″ Dan tranh (zither) enters with a freely rhythmic improvisation. 0′05″ Dan kim (lute) enters. 0’09 Dan co (fiddle) enters. 0′23″ Song lang (clapper) sounds to mark the transition to the composed/metered section of the performance. 0′24″ Dan tranh initiates composed section with a gradual increase in tempo. 0′26″ The dan kim and then the dan co reenter to affirm the basic pulse, but listen for the heavy use of syncopation. 0′28″ Song lang sounds on the third beat of the rhythmic cycle. Breaking the cycle down into sixteen subdivisions, the instrument marks the twelfth subdivision. 0′31″ Song lang sounds again on the fourth beat (sixteenth subdivision) to close the rhythmic cycle. 0′42″ Melodic instruments “close” the melody (i.e., reach a cadence) on the sixteenth beat of the cycle as the song lang sounds. 0′50″ Song lang sounds on the third beat (twelfth subdivision). 0′53″ Song lang sounds on the fourth beat (sixteenth subdivision). 1′03″ Melodic line reaches a closing cadence again. 1′25″ Closing cadence. 1′47″ 1′55″ The example fades. © Taylor & Francis

Nhac tài tử translates in two ways: as “music and songs of talented persons,” implying near-professional skills, as well as “amateurs’ music.” As with Chinese silk & bamboo chamber ensembles, the heterophonic structure allows for musicians of a variety of skill levels to participate. As long as a beginner knows the basic melody, he can participate with a group of advanced musicians capable of ornamenting the melody in more elaborate and creative ways. Tài tử ensembles are most common in entertainment contexts, often accompanying a vocalist, but are also sometimes found in theatre and for ritual occasions. Vietnam is, musically, an extremely complex country. The example used here, tai tu, is but one of many kinds of music that are essentially songs accompanied by a small instrumental ensemble. originally associated with court ceremonies in the former imperial capital, Hue; some are associated with rituals such as possession rites or funerals; and some, like tai tu, are still used simply for entertainment. Sophisticated poetry is much appreciated in Vietnam, and even though tai tu songs are “amateur,” they are also refined. It is difficult to divide Vietnamese music into categories such as “classical” and “folk,” because the same repertory of tunes can be played in many different ways. A learned musician will most likely approach a given piece differently than a farmer Within the span of a few days, the same musicians might be hired to play for a religious rite and a theater performance tai tu music was the basis for the music that accompanied the cai luong theater, a “popular” (i.e., commercial) genre created and cultivated in the south from around 1917 until its gradual decline – 1990s The challenge for visitors to Vietnam today is finding genuine “traditional” music as opposed to what is normally offered as such, what the Vietnamese call cai bien music and which can be translated as “neo-traditional.” communist period from the 1950s until the 1990s, many northern Vietnamese studied in eastern Europe where they learned about the propaganda value of “folkloric” state troupes that presented modernized forms of old music, fully composed and rehearsed, that conveyed ideas of national solidarity and identity. Most returned as professors at the Hanoi Conservatory of Music, and there they created Vietnam’s response to these ideas. They combined “improved” (i.e., modernized) versions of lowland Viet instruments with similarly altered versions of instruments from the Central Highlands and composed elaborate compositions making use of harmony, full orchestration, and having politically loaded titles. Although the promoters claimed the music came from “the people,” in fact it came from European ideas of “socialist realism,” “Talented”amateur music Entertainment settings © Taylor & Francis

Site 3: Classical Piphat Site 4: Lam Klawn Site 5: Phleng Luk Thung
Thailand Site 3: Classical Piphat Site 4: Lam Klawn Site 5: Phleng Luk Thung Our examples from Thailand introduce music from the three main categories of classical (piphat), folk (lam klawn), and popular (luk thung) music. © Taylor & Francis

Arrival: Thailand Formerly Siam Cultural regions
Central (Bangkok) North (Lanna) Northeast (Isan) South Predominantly Buddhist Thai is a tonal language Thailand was known as Siam until 1932 when the absolute monarchy became a constitutional monarchy. Bangkok is the capital city and seat of government with a population of roughly nine million people (2011). Consequently, central Thai traditions dominate the educational system and most of the country. The north region is known as Lanna, meaning “a million fields,” implying rice fields. Isan translates as “Northeast” and refers to cultural traditions of this population, which is predominantly Lao and has much in common with its northern neighbor, the country of Laos. Theravada Buddhism dominates the religious scene, though prominent elements of Hinduism and animistic traditions are included. Thais have a strong belief is animistic spirits and ancestors, but these religious rituals are typically framed within the context of Buddhist ceremonies. Bankok one huge mega-mall Under surface one finds “Thai” ness Monarchy, but revolution in 1932 (Siam) Thailand is now a constitutional monarchy with a revered royal family headed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej, Rama IX—who, incidentally, earlier aspired to become a jazz musician. Until his death Oct 13, 2016 (Miller) Traditional music requires a context in which to thrive, and as much of that context (age-old rituals, old-style farming, close-knit villages, a slow pace of life, etc.) has diminished, some of the music and dance associated with it has disappeared or survived by moving to the stage. One thing that remains, however, is “classical” music. Though classical music was never popular with the masses, there is a general tendency to think of classical traditions, such as the piphat, as representing the essence of Thainess through music.(Miller) The Thai language has five tones (common, low, falling, high, and rising). The inflection of the voice can thus significantly alter the meaning of a word. This is important for singing as the melodic contour must follow the basic tonal contour of the language. © Taylor & Francis

Site 3: Classical Piphat
First Impressions Organized chaos “Kazoo” aerophone and “ching” Aural Analysis Pi nai (quadruple reed aerophone) Melodic & rhythmic percussion Tuning system of seven equidistant tones per octave Generally pentatonic scale used: Layering of melodic instruments Piphat refers to the classical ensemble: pi, referring to the reed aerophone, and phat, a reference to “hitting,” i.e., percussion, instruments. This music was formerly associated with the royal court, as is much classical music around the world. [PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.11] First-time listeners often describe Thai music as “chaotic.” Yet, the steady pattern of the ching and consistent rhythm of the lead xylophone give it a sense of order. The timbre of the pi (reed aerophone), which has a timbre somewhat like a melodic kazoo and ching (small hand cymbals), along with the bright timbre of the xylophone, are probably the the most obvious clues for a listener to recognize this music as Thai classical piphat. The pi nai (full-name of the reed aerophone) is the only non-percussion instrument of piphat. The remaining instruments are either melodic percussion (xylophones and gong circles) or rhythmic percussion (drums, cymbals, etc.). Mahori and Khruang Sai are other classical ensembles, which replace the pi with a flute (called khlui) and add stringed instruments. The latter does not include any melodic percussion (no xylophones or gong circles). Piphat ensembles require at least three melodic instruments and two rhythmic instruments but usually add to these. The lead instrument is a high-range xylophone (ranat ek) with twenty-one bars of either hardwood or bamboo suspended over a boat-shaped resonator. Although this instrument’s performance is the most rhythmically dense, the lower circle of tuned gongs (khawng wong yai)—whose player sits in the middle of its round rattan frame—plays the fundamental form of the composition. In addition a full ensemble includes a lower-ranged xylophone (ranat thum) that plays a highly syncopated, even playful, version of the composition, plus a higher-ranged gong circle (khawng wong lek) that plays a highly embellished version of the main melody. The aerophone used in hard-mallet ensembles is a quadruple-reed oboe (aerophone) called pi, and its duty is to play a flexible, seemingly distinct, version of the same main melody. Although it works as a double reed, each half is folded, making it actually quadruple. The Thai tuning system divides the octave into seven equidistant steps, instead of twelve as in Western music. Some of the divisions thus fall “between the keys” on a piano and may make the music seem “out of tune” to listeners familiar with a different system. © Taylor & Francis

Thai Classical Instruments
Khong wong yai (gong circle) Ranat ek (leading xylophone) Thon ramana (goblet & frame drums) Chap lek (large cymbals) Krap sepha (wood clappers) Ching (small cymbals) The gong circle (khong wong yai) is made of tuned bronze gongs. Xylophones (ranat ek, ranat thum) have either wood or bamboo keys and are played with either hard (mai khaeng) or soft padded mallets (mai nuam). The pi is a quadruple reed aerophone. The khlui is a fipple flute (meaning that it has a fixed blowing edge, like a recorder, rather than one like western concert flutes) held vertically that is found primarily in mahori and khruang sai ensembles. The thon (pronounced “tone”) and ramana drums are played together, sounding out the underlying rhythmic cycle of a performance. Other rhythmic percussion mark the basic pulse. © Taylor & Francis Left 2: Pi (reed aerophones) Right 3: Khlui (flutes)

Piphat © Taylor & Francis

Temple Analogy Polyphonic Stratification Layered Roof Pillars
Melodic percussion & pi Pillars Ching – aural conductor Foundation Drums, small percussion Ethnomusicologists describe the Thai style of heterophony as polyphonic stratification. This refers to the melody, which consists of “layers” or variations of a basic melody. Each instrument has its own “style” of playing a melody. The gong circle plays the basic melody. The lead xylophone plays in octaves with a thicker rhythmic density. The pi adds frequent ornamentation and tone bending to its variation of the same basic melody. The drums and small percussion mark the rhythmic framework. Each cycle follows a duple meter, generally four pulses, accenting the final (4th) beat. Thai music is “end-accented” in that the emphasis is on the last pulse of a phrase, rather than the first as it tends to be in Western music. While musicians often listen to the drums for the basic rhythmic cycle, the ching is most important for maintaining the tempo. Much piphat music accelerates toward the end and the performers, both rhythmic and melodic, rely on the ching player to articulate the beat and tempo. Dancers are particularly attuned to the drums and ching when performing with a piphat ensemble. The visual analogy of a temple helps to articulate these basic parts: foundational rhythm, layered (heterophonic) melody, and the central role of the ching to “conduct” the basic beat. While the ching and rhythm are essential, the “focus” for an audience is primarily on the melody, as with the colorful decorations of Thai temple roofs. The tiered roofs of Thai temples are considered symbolic of the Buddhist belief in reincarnation. © Taylor & Francis

Thailand: Classical Piphat Music
TIME LISTENING FOCUS 0′00″ Daphon (drum) initiates the performance. Listen for the contrasting high and low pitches of each drum face. Although it follows a cycle, the patterns played do not regularly repeat. 0′02″ Ranat ek (high xylophone) initiates the melodic content followed by the pi (reed aerophone) and remaining instruments. Listen for the higher range of pitches on the lead xylophone played in octaves and its busier rhythmic density in comparison to the other instruments. Also, note the “duck call” timbre of the pi that is quite prominent. 0′05″ Listen for the ching (small hand cymbals) entrance. Note there are no “chop” strokes during this section of the performance. 0′13″–0′14″ The heterophonic structure of Thai classical music makes it difficult to follow the melodic content. A good thing to focus on is the point at which the khawng wong yai reaches a cadence (closing phrase). Listen for the “ringing” timbre and thinner rhythmic density of this instrument, which provides the fundamental melody. 0′49″–0′55″ Listen for the ranat thum (low xylophone). This instrument is most difficult to hear, having a mellower timbre than the lead xylophone. Listen for its characteristic syncopations, broken octaves, and quick three-note ornamentations. Its melodic line frequently moves in a direction contrary to the other instruments. 1′16″–1′29″ Listen for the brief decrease in rhythmic density of the pi for twelve ching strokes as the ensemble moves toward a cadence point that quickly passes. Note how the pi (and other instruments) matches the ending pitch of the phrase at 1′29″. 2′30″ Contrast the tempo at this point in the performance with the opening material. The tempo has increased significantly. (From roughly 84 beats per minute to about 104 by this point in the music.) 2′49″ Tempo slows dramatically at closing of opening section. 2′59″ Second section begins. Note the use of both “ching” and “chop” strokes with the ching. Also, note the increased activity of the daphon and clearer synchronization of the melodic instruments. 3′24″ Melody repeats. 3′45″ Tempo slows as ensemble reaches end of section. 3′51″ Third section begins. Note the ensemble plays in free rhythm to the end of the performance. Listen for the contrasting timbre and melodic style of each instrument. © Taylor & Francis

During the heyday of the Thai monarchy in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, classical music was generously patronized and played a major role in court ceremonies, both secular and Buddhist-related. As a consequence, Thai classical music is closely associated with the society’s most important state occasions, festivals, and sacred rites of passage, such as ceremonies to honor teachers, ordinations, funerals, and certain Buddhist rituals(Miller) Wai is a greeting used in everyday meetings throughout Thailand. The hands are placed together in a prayer-like gesture along with a slight bow to the directed recipient of the greeting. Khru means “teacher” and is derived from the word “guru” in Hindi. A wai khru ceremony is thus translated as a “greeting-teacher” ceremony, but it is intended to honor all teachers, living and deceased, as well as mythological. In Thai society, the acts of teaching and learning, of passing on and receiving knowledge, are considered near sacred, and one honors not just the present-day living teacher, but that person’s entire lineage leading back to the ultimate sources of knowledge, the pantheon of gods drawn from animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Before a master can begin transmitting knowledge to a student, the latter must perform a ritual “teacher greeting ceremony” or phithi (pronounced pee-tee) wai khru, the last word being the Thai pronunciation of the well-known Indian term guru. Simple wai khru ceremonies are performed at schools in which students simply reaffirm their allegiance to all their teachers, but for classical musicians and other such artists the teacher greeting ceremony is one of the most important rituals of their life.(Miller) Although wai khru are performed at a variety of educational institutions, wai khru ceremonies associated with music and dance instruction tend to be very elaborate. Atop the altar are masks representing the first teachers of knowledge in various arts and other disciplines. Many have Hindu associations. Musical instruments are blessed during such ceremonies, and students are initiated into their studies with a brief lesson on their instrument type. Portraits of well-known teachers (deceased) are also given honor by being placed on the altar. Offerings, such as food, drink, flowers, and incense, are also found on the altar as offerings to the spirits. The music itself is considered an offering as well and is important for structuring the ceremony with specific pieces performed at key points in the ritual. Sathukan (CD 1.11), for example, is the opening music for wai khru ceremonies and is meant to invite the “spirits” to attend the ritual. Wai Khru – Teacher Honoring Ceremony © Taylor & Francis Above: A wai khru altar with students initiated by an elder teacher Right: A wai khru ceremony in Bangkok

Site 6: Javanese Court Gamelan Site 7: Balinese Gamelan Gong Kebyar
Indonesia Though many types of gamelan music are found throughout Indonesia, we will examine two of the most prominent from the islands of Java and Bali. The background image on the slide is of rice paddies in Bali, Indonesia. © Taylor & Francis Site 6: Javanese Court Gamelan Site 7: Balinese Gamelan Gong Kebyar

Introduction to the Region
Geography Indonesia is a nation made up of a chain of over 13,000 islands Capital is Jakarta (nearly 10 million inhabitants The world’s fourth most populous country--over 255 million people “Indonesia” is a political rather than a “cultural” expression. The country’s motto: Unity in diversity The motto of the Republic of Indonesia is “Unity in Diversity” Indonesia is comprised of 13,670 islands, of which more than 7,000 are uninhabited. Almost 75 percent of Indonesia's area is included in the three largest islands of Borneo, of which about three-quarters, or 212,000 square miles, is part of Indonesia; Sumatra, with 186,000 square miles; and the Irian Jaya portion of New Guinea, with 162,000 square miles. Nearly all of the total land area is accounted for with the addition of Celebes (75,100 square miles) and Java and the Moluccas (83,400 square miles). Jakarta: officially known as the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia, (though Jakarta is also a province) and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. Located on the northwest coast of Java, Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre, and with a population of 9,761,407 as of December 2012,[7] it is the most populous city in Indonesia and in Southeast Asia.[8] The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek (a name formed by combining the initial syllables of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi), is the second largest in the world, yet the metropolis's suburbs still continue beyond it. Established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies (known as Batavia at that time). Today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the country's independence was declared in The city is currently the seat of the ASEAN Secretariat.

Unity in diversity… Language: over 300 languages spoken in Indonesia, though Indonesian is the official language, adopted partly as a means to gain independence from the Dutch in the revolution from The Dutch eventually colonized much of Indonesia: first contact was fifteenth century. By mid-eighteenth century, Dutch traders had asserted political control over much of the island chain. Before independence, Indonesia was called the Dutch East Indies. Very diverse: “Indonesia” is a political rather than a “cultural” expression. The country’s motto: Unity in diversity History Indonesia has been populated by waves of migration over millennia, bringing a wealth of cultural diversity, including religions, music, dance and other arts that have been layered upon the indigenous cultural practices. Being a sea-faring people, they have also influenced other nations, and have had contact between each of the islands. Trade with eastern coast of Africa existed in early centuries, C.E. Since air travel has been introduced, most islands are linked through small or large-scale air travel (including tourism). Early European history: The Dutch eventually colonized much of Indonesia some centuries after their first contact that began around the fifteenth century. By mid-eighteenth century, Dutch traders had asserted political control over much of the island chain. Before independence, Indonesia was called the Dutch East Indies. Originally the affairs with the Dutch were with a private corporation, the Dutch East Indies corporation, but after struggles with the Portugese and the British, who had intermittent control of various areas of the Dutch East Indies, along with the financial collapse of the company, control was finally once again ceded to the Dutch government in the first half of the 19th century. Language: There are over 300 languages spoken in Indonesia, though Indonesian is the official language, adopted partly as a means to gain independence from the Dutch in the revolution from However, parts of Indonesia do not identify with the Indonesian government, culture or language, and have been dominated by the Indonesian government–one such area that has been in the news in the past decade years is East Timor, a former Portugese colony which was taken over in 1975 by the Indonesian govt., which has now gained independence from Indonesia. The Indonesian govt. slaughtered many thousands of Timorese in their oppressive control of the island since the Portugese abandonment in Aceh also had a 29 year struggle for independence, until 2004 tsunami; afterward, a peach agreeement with local autonomy brokered. Under this political and cultural influence, the various cultures of Indonesia have continued to practice non-Western traditions, though much of what is done in the way of the performing or visual arts has, in many ways been syncretized and layered with outside influence over the course of many centuries.

Cosmology and Religions of Indonesia
Indonesia is extremely diverse in cosmology: Buddhism from China: 7th century Hindu from India:13th century Islamic influence begins around the 14th century Christianity came with various colonizing powers Dutch, Portuguese, British Animism: homegrown religions practiced around the archipelago (island chain). The greatest influence is from Islam, but layered influence evident—especially Hindu Indonesia is extremely diverse in cosmology: •Buddhism from China reached parts of Indonesia by 7th century •Hindu religion from India came around the 13th century •Islamic influence begins around the fourteenth century (probably in Aceh) •Christianity came with various colonizing powers; Dutch, Portugese, British Within the archipelago are practiced indigenous animistic religions, Christianity, Hinduism and Islam. The greatest influence is from Islam, but even those areas where Islam is the dominant religion show evidence of other religions, particularly Hindu, in the creative arts.

Cosmology and music: Hindu influence
Hindu cosmology, belief in maintaining balance between heaven and earth, is reflected in various dualities found in music Two tunings systems Binary meters and forms (divisions and multiples of two in music composition) Hindu cycles (non-linear time) are also represented through the periodic striking of gongs during gamelan performance Hindu cosmology, and its belief in maintaining balance between heaven and earth, is reflected in various dualities found in music •Two tunings systems •Binary meters and forms •Contrasting sections of loud and soft, fast and slow, vocal and instrumental Hindu calendric cycles are also represented through the periodic striking of gongs during gamelan performance– more on this later There are many types of traditional music, and popular musics from the west, middle east, indigenous, as well as those that have fused with Western pop also proliferate. A large city like Jakarta will boast Music from around the world, both live and recorded, alongside traditional regional musics. Dance, of course, is also ubiquitous; A couple other practices are quite widespread, however. One is the puppet theater, the second is the use of gongs.

Java and Bali gamelan shared aesthetics
Orchestras Featuring Bronze Instruments Metallophones - metal-keyed xylophones Tuned gongs- hung vertically and horizontally suspended Bali and java both have orchestras featuring bronze instruments. The orchestra, rather than the soloist, is the ideal Ensembles consist of drums, winds, and stringed instruments, but bronze instruments dominate metallophones – metal keyed xylophone-type, gongs Gongs: The principal instrument types in Indonesia are gongs; instrument groups resembling gamelans are widespread throughout the Southeast Asian area, including Burma, Malaysia, the Philippines and other parts of southeast Asia. Bronze gongs are thought to have first been incorporated on Java around the 1st century, with the advent of bronze-age technology in Indonesia. •technology came from China Bronze alloy is made by mixing tin and copper. Difference between gongs and cymbals A “knobbed” gong has a raised striking area in the center, that helps to shape the sound of the gong. One type of music that can be heard in a number of contexts: Gamelan •Historically, royal courts, religious ceremony, with or without dance; puppet theater •“Concerts” are not typical for this music The gamelan: etymology of “gamelan” is gamel; “to hit, or manipulate with the hands •Consists of mostly 3 types of bronze instruments: suspended gongs, kettle gongs, and metal slab instruments. A gamelan is an “orchestra” of such instruments, and they are tuned together as one instrument set.

Elements of Gamelan Music
Java and Bali gamelan distinctions Javanese gamelan produce more gentle tones that invite contemplation Balinese gamelan is more dynamic and invigorating Bali and java both have orchestras featuring bronze instruments: the gamelan typically, java more contemplative, Bali faster in general, but there are many exceptions. Shared characteristics:

Java and Bali gamelan shared aesthetics Compositions Guided by a Core Melody A skeletal melody, called balungan (Java) or pokok (Bali), directs the parts of the texture The melody guides moments of contrast and resolution “Polyphonic stratification” Texture Melodies weave around the core melody These melodies are not guided by harmony, so the texture is varied throughout, with melodies converging at significant points in the music ii) Compositions guided by a core melody •(1) A skeletal melody, called balungan (J) or pokok (B), directs the parts of the texture •(2) The melody guides moments of contrast and resolution “Polyphonic” texture Melodies weave around the core melody Not guided by harmony: These melodies are not guided by harmony, so the texture is varied throughout, with melodies converging at significant points in the music One might make an argument that the texture is more heterophonic, but we’ll go with Alve’s description for now.

Java and Bali gamelan shared aesthetics Colotomic Structure Gongs punctuate the texture, articulating the metrical cycle Gongs create a hierarchical structure that serves as the cyclical basis for a piece Colotomic structure (1) Gongs punctuate the texture, articulating the metrical cycle (2) Gongs create a hierarchical structure that serves as the cyclical basis for a piece

Java and Bali gamelan shared aesthetics Paired Families of Tuning Systems There are two tuning systems, pelog and slendro pelog – system with seven unequal steps per octave slendro- system with five almost equal steps per octave Compositions are written in one of the two tuning systems—not both Tuning is not fixed, but families of instruments tend to share similar tuning attributes Tuning Though there are several tunings, the two main tunings are the •Slendro: five tone scale of nearly equidistant notes, •Pelog: seven tone scale of different-sized intervals. Tuning is not fixed, but families of instruments tend to share similar tuning attributes Neither scale matches the Western diatonic or chromatic scale, and there are no standardized tunings for different gamelans–though each of the instruments within a gamelan is meticulously tuned. Compositions are written in one of the two tuning systems

Java and Bali gamelan shared aesthetics Stress at the End of Metrical Cycles Beats in gamelan music are numbered so that the stress comes on the second of every pair of metrical divisions (greatest stress on beat 16 at end of a cycle) The following graphic shows the stress on beats in gamelan music: Stress at the End of Metrical Cycles Beats in gamelan music are numbered so that the stress comes on the second of every pair of metrical divisions (greatest stress on beat 16 at end of a cycle) The following graphic shows the stress on beats in gamelan music: Now on to the particulars of Javanese gamelan music © 2013 Cengage Learning

Site 6: Javanese Court Gamelan
First Impressions Metallic music with “misty” interlude Aural Analysis Mostly metallophones “Soft & Strong” styles Colotomic structure [PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.14] First Impressions: The heavy gongs and metallophones (xylo means “wood,” so metallophone is the correct term for a metal-keyed “xylophone”) give a metallic timbre during the “strong” style sections. The other instruments, e.g., flutes and fiddle, as well as voices when present, are highlighted in the “soft style” sections, which has a “misty, free-floating” quality to it. Aural Analysis: The three basic types of metallophones include hanging gongs (i.e., gong ageng), rack gongs (i.e., bonang), and the metal-keyed instruments (i.e., gender, pronounced with a hard g). Non-idiophones, such as flutes (suling), zither (siter and celempung), and the fiddle (rebab) as well as rhythmic percussion, i.e., drums, are also part of a gamelan ensemble. These quieter instruments play a more prominent role during the “soft” style performance sections. Music with a colotomic structure is organized into cycles defined by periodic punctuation. The instruments “collide back together” at these important melodic points, while diverging a great deal between. Above: Metallophones of the Javanese gamelan. Right: Gender (metallophone with bamboo resonators) © Taylor & Francis

Java, Its Gamelan and Instruments
Javanese Culture Javanese follow a form of Islam that blends Hindu beliefs in the spirit world with traditional Islamic teachings Hindu stories still permeate dramas and gamelan performances Spirituality is an important factor in the creation of and playing of music Javanese Culture–helps to understand music, music helps to understand culture: i) Javanese follow a form of Islam that blends Hindu beliefs in the spirit world with traditional Islamic teachings–animist, pre-Hindu past as well ii) Hindu stories still permeate dramas and gamelan performances iii) Spirituality is an important factor in the creation of and playing of music iv) Spiritual value is attached to musical instruments–for instance, never stepping over and instrument, but around it. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Coincidence and Hindu Cosmology
The organization of musical compositions (the colotomic structure) is a reflection of Buddhist and Hindu perspectives on cyclical time rather than linear time Overlapping calendars of different lengths Gregorian calendar—7 day Islamic Calendar Javanese calendar Five-day cycles Month-long cycles (28 days) Year-cycles 8-year cycles Coincidence occurs at important intersections auspicious dates of different cycles Coincidence and Hindu/Buddhist cosmology: • Reflection of Buddhist and Hindu ideas about cyclical time and nature reflected in the gamelan. • Just as a Gendhing cannot end on any other than the coincidence of the gong and kenong patterns, the lives of the Javanese are influenced by other coincidings. • In addition to the cyclical patterns of the gendhings, there is also present the idea of the coincidence of different patterns present in these instruments that reflects a belief in the coincidence of auspicious calendric dates, chosen for the coincidence of particular calendars in use: The Javanese calendar is a calendar still in use by the Javanese people of Indonesia concurrently with two other important calendars, the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar. The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of the Republic of Indonesia and civil society. The Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Government for religious worship and deciding relevant Muslim public holidays. The Javanese calendar is used almost exclusively by the people of Java including the main ethnicities of Java island: Javanese, Madurese and Sundanese- primarily as a cultural icon, a cultural identifier and as an object and tradition of antiquity to be kept alive. The Javanese calendar is used for cultural and metaphysical purposes of these Javanese peoples [1] The current Javanese calendar was inaugurated by Sultan Agung of Mataram in the Gregorian year 1633. Prior, Javanese had used the Hindu calendar or Saka calendar which that starts in 78 CE and uses the solar cycle for calculating time [2]. Sultan Agung's Javanese calendar retained the Saka calendar date of origin but differs by using the same lunar year measurement system as the Islamic calendar (based on the lunar month). Occasionally it is referred by its' Latin name Anno Javanico or AJ (Javanese Year) The Javanese calendar contains multiple, overlapping separate measurements of times, called cycles. These are * the five-day Pasaran cycle of five days, * the common Gregorian seven-day week, * the month-cycles of Mangsa and Wulan month-long cycles * the year-cycles Tahun cycles of years * and octo-ennia (8 year) cycles called Windu. The Javanese derive mystical meaning from the coincidence of these multiple cycles. Coincidence is an important part of the Javanese aesthetic, for example the use of seleh and gongan metrical cycles in Javanese music. In our own cultures, for example, the coincidence of Friday and the 13th day of the month; that when these days coincide, one probably should not get married, or do any other highly important function on that day. One can think of solar eclipse this way: two differing rates of orbit, one occuring on daily cycle, one on yearly cycle, at times, the coincidence of these cycles creates an eclipse–a very auspicious occasion. Thus we see that the coincidings present in the gamelan cycles closely resemble the same ideas in social practice.

Strong and soft style Performances feature contrasting sections of soft instruments playing the melody or loud instruments dominating the texture (strong and soft style) Entire pieces are often in one style only Typical pieces can last up to thirty minutes Large gongs signal the end of the piece following a cue from the drummer Loud style may have derived form outdoor performances

Four areas of organization: Punctuation Core melody Elaborating melody Percussion note

Area 1: Punctuation Javanese Gamelan Instruments Colotomic instruments
Kenong set of large horizontal kettle gongs much taller than bonang and perform a different function Kempul – small hanging gongs Gong ageng largest vertically hung gong signals the end of metrical cycles Hanging gongs: .Gong ageng: Largest of the hanging gongs. Suspended vertically from a wooden frame. .Siyem: middle hanging gong .kempul: Several hanging gongs–smallest of hanging gongs Kettle gongs Kempul: set of large kettle gongs Kethuk: small kettle gong; one or two for each scale system; played with padded stick beater. Kempyang: pair of kettle gongs, smaller than Kethuk For the most part, gongans are of regular length; though there are exceptions. Gong ageng or siyem marks one melodic phrase of the balungan, which is one gongan in length–the entire balungan melody will be several gongans in length The smaller divisions and subdivisions should be seen as punctuation of strong and weak beats, within the gongan.

Javanese Composition Colotomic Structure
Colotomy: a term coined by the ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst-- describes the rhythmic and metric patterns of the gamelan. A particular note, played by a particular instrument, at a particular time Colotomic Structure Gongs punctuate the texture of the music at regular time intervals The structure of these entrances is fixed and repeats A gongan is the large phrase defined by the duration between successive gong notes Beats are called keteg, and often correspond to one note of the balungan A gamelan Gendhing (composition) The gendhing is composed within a framework of cyclic repetition of gong cycles .Gongan: one cycle; may be from eight to 256 beats per cycle .complete melodies can take from one to many gongans .within each gongan are “punctuations,” or points of stress

Javanese Composition: Colotomic Structure
Four Gongan punctuation patterns Ladrang –32 beats, a common form Ketawang—16 beats with fewer Kenong Subdivisions Merong Ketuk 2 Kerep or Candra – 64 beats with 2 ketuks per kenong Merong Ketuk 4 Kerep or Candra Dawah—64 beats with 4 ketuks per kenong © 2013 Cengage Learning

Javanese Composition Area two, the core melody
The Balungan The core melody of a piece The balungan is played by the saron and slentem Melodic motives distinguish the identity of a balungan, and also set the mode and character of the piece

Melody elaborating instruments Gender metallophones with a tube resonator player uses disc shaped mallets covered in felt two sizes Bonang bronze kettle gongs laid horizontally across strings and set in a frame two or three sizes played with stick mallets in each hand Rebab two-string vertical spike fiddle the melodic leader of the orchestra William Alves

Javanese Gamelan Instruments
Melody elaborating instruments, cont. Gambang wooden xylophone with a box resonator played in parallel octaves with disc shaped mallets Celempung - a large, plucked zither Suling – end-blown bamboo duct flute William Alves

Function Four, Drums Kendang set of two or three drums
played by the conductor of the ensemble Signals gamelan to speed up, slow down, change irama level, move to new section

Islam Court Music Tranquility Dance Java is predominantly Islamic. Many Islamic nations have a “king,” or “sultan.” The sultan in Java is considered to have a spiritual connection, related strongly to animistic traditions. Music of the court is thus provided for the king as well as for spirits. Much Javanese gamelan music is related to court music contexts and functions not only as entertainment, but also to strengthen the connection between the material and spiritual planes of existence. Tranquility is a key notion in Javanese spiritual matters, so the court gamelan music reflects this with a slow and stately manner that emphasizes balance. Symmetrical melodic phrases and inner groupings (four groups of four beats in two pairs of phrases) also reflect this philosophy. The use of all instruments of the ensemble sounding throughout maintains a balanced texture. While certain instruments may be highlighted during performance, their “solos” are not a pronounced separation from the rest of the ensemble. Javanese court dance similarly reflects this sense of tranquility. Dancers move quite slowly with a focus on graceful movements and subtle gestures, such as a raised little finger or upturned toes. © Taylor & Francis

Site 7: Balinese Gamelan Gong Kebyar
First Impressions Dynamic shifts of mood Aural Analysis Starts and stops Sectional solos “Superhuman speed” “Shimmer effect” [PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.15] Kebyar music has many sudden musical flourishes. Abrupt silences are frequent, so the music has a constant sense of shifting mood. While the music is still based on a colotomic structure, as with the Javanese gamelan, the sense of tranquil equilibrium heard in the Javanese style is largely lost in this type of Balinese gamelan music. Different sections of instruments in the ensemble often have solos where the remaining melodic instruments are silent. The “embellishment” element of the melody, which was subdued in Javanese gamelan, is often highlighted in Balinese performance. The thick rhythmic density of kebyar music is produced by two performers interlocking their pitches of a melody with another performer. Thus, the resultant melody is played at a density “faster” than one person could play, i.e., superhuman. This happens most frequently on the gender (pictured) and bonang (small rack gongs). The “shimmer effect” of kebyar music is produced by having identical instruments with keys tuned slightly apart. The overlapping sound waves produce a subtle wavering or “shimmering” sound as the volume pulsates. Thus, to produce the shimmer and the superhuman-speed there must be four performers working together, e.g., playing two pair of gender. Skilled ensembles practice many hours in order to perfect their performances. A pair of gender wayang © Taylor & Francis

Characteristics of the Balinese Gamelan
The Balinese gamelan plays dynamic and thrilling music Gamelan parts are precomposed and memorized by the players, not improvised Balinese melodies use interlocking parts to create rapid phrases Orchestras are able to start and stop promptly, a skill developed through hours of rehearsal and played in the kebyar style William Alves

Characteristics of the Balinese Gamelan
Instruments are deliberately detuned from one another to create “shimmering” effect Balinese gamelan share characteristics with Javanese gamelan (Table 16.3) Colotomic structure Tempo conducted by drummers Compositions made up of repeated sections Similar instruments

The kebyar ensemble is the most popular type of gamelan
The Gamelan Gong Kebyar The kebyar ensemble is the most popular type of gamelan The kebyar ensemble accompanies dances, ceremonial music, and unaccompanied instrumental performances Compositions consist of repeated sections that showcase virtuosic figurations

The Gamelan Gong Kebyar “to flare up”
Bali Arts Festival competitions are elaborate, exciting events with fierce rivalries Rise of pan-Balinese festivals has brought changes to performance practice Kebyar style has become faster and more virtuosic, visually flashy

Koketan Interlocking Patterns and figuration Balinese figuration is based on the precise collaboration of rhythms and melodies Interlocking parts form complex melody Pitched instruments must work especially hard to achieve coordination of patterns because they are also responsible for the pokok (core) melody Improvisation is not allowed Sinom Ladrang: polos and sangsih. Gamelan Singa Murti, Singapore

Balinese Composition and Performance
The Baris (Warrior dance) and Kebyar Dancing in Bali is dynamic and exciting just like the music A traditional dance associated with gamelan gong kebyar is Baris Dancer mimicks emotional states of the warrior Abrupt changes in sections, tempo, mood are coordinated between dancer and lead drummer

Balinese Composition and Performance
Kecak – a new tradition, with ancient roots Invented by Walter Spies, based on earlier trance ritual Entirely vocal form of music and one of the most famous of all Bali music forms Men shout, chant, or sing, replacing the traditional gamelan instruments with their own voices Men take on the roles of the gamelan instruments, such that one may represent the gong, while a group of men may represent the other colotomic instruments

Kecak Semara Ulangun A touristic version, but kecak’s recent history embedded in tourism…. Important terms: Ramayana, Walter Spies (not in textbook)

Balinese Barong Dance The barong is a mythical dragon-like animal that protects the village William Alves

Offering to Hindu deities Dynamic dance Wayang Kulit Shadow puppets Numerous Hindu temples are found on the small island of Bali. Music is often performed as an offering to the Hindu deities. Festivals for these gods occur throughout the year and mark important dates of the agricultural cycle. The character of Balinese dance contrasts starkly with the Javanese. Balinese dance is very abrupt and angular. Though small gestures, such as the movement of the eyes, are important, the sense of subtle grace that permeates Javanese dance is largely replaced by energetic activity in Balinese performance. Wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) is a common context for gamelan performance in both Java and Bali. The Indian epic story of the Ramayana is commonly told in this medium, as is the Mahabharata, another Indian epic. The puppeteer and musicians sit behind a white screen. A light is cast from behind so that the audience sitting on the other side of the screen can only see the shadows of the puppets. In this way, the puppets act as a medium to the spirit world to bring the characters “to life” through the shadow. A Balinese dancer accompanied by gamelan Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet theatre) © Taylor & Francis

Southeast Asia A Land of Bamboo and Bronze

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