1. Harbrace Chapter 35
“Writing Arguments”

2. Argument /Persuasion Argument is linked with logical reasoning
Persuasion is winning or conquering using emotional appeal

3. In argumentation, Audience is integral to purpose.
If you are unable to convince, invite the audience to consider and understand your position
If the audience is not firmly committed to a position, you may be able to convince…
If the audience is in agreement, invite them to respond specifically

4. Tips for Assessing a Topic and an Arguable Statement
Invention: Reasons to support
Groups who might agree/disagree?
Knowledge and Research?

5. Position Argument takes a position or makes a claim
Position is called the claim or proposition

6. Claims(how much can be supported)
Absolute---assert that something is true or false
Moderate---make less sweeping assumptions

7. Claims (how much they encompass)
Substantiation Claims---assert that something exists; can be supported by evidence
Evaluation Claims---assert that something has a specific quality (good or bad; successful or unsuccessful, etc.)
Policy Claims---writers call for a change in policy or law

8. Development of the Well Developed Argument
Introduce several reasons for your claim Stronger and more complex Cannot be dismissed as quickly

9. Supporting the Claim Evidence must be valid
Evidence from credible sources which includes
facts,
statistics,
examples,
testimony

10. Refutation Most common strategy for addressing opposing points of view
Why is it important?
Why could it be confusing?

11. Concessions
Open admission of agreeing with your opponents on one or more specific points
Advantages---
Disadvantages---

12. Decisions How do you decide which points to refute or to concede?
Exercise

13. Rhetoric/Rhetorical Situation
Rhetoric: Using language effectively to persuade, inform, educate, or entertain
Rhetorical Situation: The circumstances in which you communicate.

14. Illustrated Rhetorical …

15. Rhetoric
• Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” At its best, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective activity leading to effective communication.

16. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle

17. Three Rhetorical Appeals
The combination of the three strategies or appeals helps speakers shape effective arguments

18. Logos Appeal to logic or reason; logical
Effective use of reason and judicious use of evidence
Used in supporting claims, drawing conclusions, and avoiding logical fallacies
Very rarely effective in persuasion
“Reason is, and ought only to be, slave to the passions.” —David Hume

19. Logos Incontrovertible, indisputable facts Statistics
Evidence, facts, statistics, comparisons, anecdotes, expert opinions, personal experiences, observations
Syllogistic structure
CAUTION: Many appeals are clothed in logical apparel but are NOT pure reason.
Evidence that relies on interpretation is not, strictly speaking, an appeal to logos.

20. Ethos
Appeal of the writer’s character, credibility, trustworthiness (ethical)
Attempts to gain the respect of the audience
Establishes the speaker’s or writer’s credibility
Establishes common ground
Often appeals to shared values—i.e., says “I’m one of you.”

21. Ethos
Levels of diction: how a writer/speaker chooses words to address a particular audience
Citing authorities (e.g., Einstein)
Appearing humble, down to earth
Employing humor
Alluding to cultural, religious, literary values held by the audience

22. Pathos Appeal to emotion; passionate (pathetic)
Attempts to draw on an audience’s pity, anger, hatred, etc.
Powerful, truly persuasive speaking and writing is always filled with pathos

23. Pathos Diction Uses language to stir the feelings of the audience
Imagery
Metaphor
Syntax (*especially if syntax supports meaning)

24. Using It All
It is possible—even preferable—for a writer or speaker to make multiple appeals at the same time.
Use information about the rhetorical situation to analyze rhetoric question and to create your own arguments

25. The Reader’s Rhetoric Logos
Note the claims the author makes, the urgency
Note the data the author provides in support of the claims.
Note the conclusions the author draws.
Ethos
Note how the author establishes a persona
Note how the author establishes credibility
Note any revelation of the author's credentials or personal history
Pathos
Note the primary audience for the text
Note the emotional appeals the author makes
Note the author's expectations of the audience 

26. The Writer’s Rhetoric Logos
Have I established the purpose for my text, and have I utilized the most effective genre?
Have I established a clear, reasonable, and logical progression of my ideas?
Have I addressed opposing arguments or perspectives?
Ethos
Have I established the appropriate persona?
Have I established my credibility?
Have I expressed my knowledge and expertise of the topic?
Pathos
Have I considered the primary audience, the background they have?
Does my audience agree with me or will I have to persuade them of the validity of my argument?
How will I make my text appeal to my audience?

27. Rogerian Appeals
The importance of listening to what others say and Emphasis on….

28. Arrangement of Arguments
Classical Arrangement 531
Introduction
Background Information
Proposition
Proof or confirmation
Refutation
Concession
Conclusion

29. Rogerian
Introduction
Concessions
Thesis
Support
Conclusion

30. Rogerian Arrangement
1. An introduction to the problem and a demonstration that the opponent's position is understood.
2. A statement of the contexts in which the opponent's position may be valid.
3. A statement of the writer's position, including the contexts in which it is valid.
4. A statement of how the opponent's position would benefit if he were to adopt elements of the writer's position. If the writer can show that the positions complement each other, that each supplies what the other lacks, so much the better.

31. Other Guidelines Separate reasons in separate paragraphs ---why?
Begin a paragraph with a different view…effect?
Conclusion may reinforce purpose…effective?