1. © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON
GROUNDED THEORY
© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

2. STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
Versions of grounded theory
Stages in generating a grounded theory
The tools of grounded theory
The strength of the grounded theory
Evaluating grounded theory
Preparing to work in grounded theory
Some concerns about grounded theory
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

3. GROUNDED THEORY Concerns theory generation.
More inductive than content analysis.
Theory is derived inductively from the analysis and study of, and reflection on, the phenomena under scrutiny.
Grounded theory is a set of relationships amongst data and categories that proposes a plausible and reasonable explanation of the phenomenon under study.
It is a method or set of procedures for the generation of theory or for the production of a certain kind of knowledge.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

4. GROUNDED THEORY Theory is emergent rather than predefined and tested.
Theory emerges from the data rather than vice versa.
Theory generation is a consequence of, and partner to, systematic data collection and analysis.
Patterns and theories are implicit in data, waiting to be discovered.
Grounded theory is both inductive and deductive, it is iterative and close to the data that give rise to it.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

5. GROUNDED THEORY Grounded theory includes context.
Grounded theory does not force data to fit with a predetermined theory.
Grounded theory builds rather than tests theory.
Grounded theory starts with data.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

6. GROUNDED THEORY Induction Open, axial, selective coding Categorizing
Theoretical sampling
Constant comparison
Memoing
Generation of core categories
Theoretical saturation
Generation of theory
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

7. THREE MODELS OF GROUNDED THEORY
The original, emergent model
Commence with data alone.
Theory emerges from the data (has no prior existence), using various tools to facilitate such emergence and the ‘discovery’ of the theory that is embedded in the data.
Substantive coding and theoretical coding.
Use induction but not deduction.
Avoid literature review.
Broader structural contents and influences, if they are present in the research, are manifested in the data alone and, otherwise, should not be considered.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

8. THREE MODELS OF GROUNDED THEORY
The revised, systematic model
More systematic and prescriptive than the original model.
Axial coding and selective coding.
Use a literature review.
Sampling proceeds on theoretical grounds.
Hypotheses can be developed and verified.
Induction, deduction and abduction can be used.
Attention given to broader structural contents and influences.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

9. THREE MODELS OF GROUNDED THEORY
The constructivist model
Subjective meanings are attributed to the data by participants and researchers.
Multiple interpretations of what these meanings are.
Moving beyond ‘facts’ and descriptions of acts to interpretations and perspectives.
Concepts are constructed rather than discovered.
Uses a literature review.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

10. COMMON FEATURES OF THE THREE MODELS
Theory is emergent rather than predefined and tested; it emerges from the data rather than vice versa
The grounded theory process is recursive
Sampling is targeted at generating theory
The process of analysis involves coding and categorization
Data collection and analysis proceed simultaneously and are ongoing
Constant comparison
Theory generation is a consequence of, and partner to, systematic data collection and analysis
Patterns and theories are implicit in data, waiting to be discovered
Grounded theory is close to the data that give rise to it
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

11. THE TOOLS OF GROUNDED THEORY
Theoretical sampling
Coding
Constant comparison
Identification of the core variable(s)
Saturation
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

12. TYPES OF CODE Open/substantive Axial Selective Theoretical
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

13. CONSTANT COMPARISON
The process ‘by which the properties and categories across the data are compared continuously until no more variation occurs’ (Glaser, 1996), i.e. saturation is reached.
Data are compared across a range of situations, times, groups of people, and through a range of methods.
The process accords with the notion of triangulation.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

14. THE CORE VARIABLE
The variable/category which accounts for most of the data and to which as much as possible is related.
The variable or category around which most data are focused, to which they relate and are connected.
The variable that integrates the greatest number of codes, categories and concepts.
The variable with the greatest explanatory power.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

15. SATURATION
When no new insights, properties, dimensions, relationships, codes or categories are produced even when new data are added.
When all the data are accounted for in the core categories and sub-categories.
When the coding, categories and data support the emerging theory.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

16. STAGES IN GROUNDED THEORY1
Decision on whether a grounded theory approach is most suitable 2
Theoretical sampling + memoing 3
Data collection + memoing 4
Coding: open codes leading to axial codes (clustering open codes into groups by meaning), leading to selective codes (relating axial codes to each other and drawing linkages); theoretical codes + memoing 5
Categorization (which might involve reducing the number of codes and creating hierarchies of codes) + memoing
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

17. STAGES IN GROUNDED THEORY6
Constant comparison + memoing 7
Identification of the core variable + memoing 8
Saturation + memoing 9
Theory generation/verification 10
Writing the report
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

18. EVALUATING GROUNDED THEORY
Evaluating the grounded theory:
The closeness of the fit between the theory and the data.
How readily understandable the theory is by the lay persons working in the field.
The ability of the theory to be general to many daily situations in the substantive area.
The theory must allow the person who uses it to have some control over the structure and process of daily situations to make its application worth trying.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

19. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
How adequately and powerfully the theory accounts for the main concerns of the data.
The relevance and utility of the theory for the participants.
The closeness of the fit of the theory to the data and phenomenon being studied.
Under what conditions the theory holds true.
The fit of the axial coding to the categories and codes.
The ability of the theory to embrace negative and discrepant cases.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

20. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
The fit of the theory to literature.
How the original sample was selected, and on what basis.
The major categories that emerged.
The events, incidents, actions and indicators of the main categories.
The basis of the categories in the theoretical sampling procedures (and their representativeness).
Processes in, and grounds for, identifying the core category.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

21. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
The hypotheses pertaining to conceptual relations among categories, and the grounds on which they were formulated and tested.
Accounting for discrepant cases and their effects on the hypothesis.
Conceptual linkages between concepts and categories.
Variations in the theory and their interpretations.
Change or movement taken into account in the development of the theory.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

22. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
The reliability, validity and credibility of the data.
The adequacy of the research process.
The empirical grounding of the research findings.
The sampling procedures.
The major categories that emerged.
The adequacy of the evidence base for the categories that emerged.
The adequacy of the basis in the categories that led to the theoretical sampling.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

23. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
The formulation and testing of hypotheses and their relationship to the conceptual relations amongst the categories.
The adequacy of the way in which discrepant data were handled.
The adequacy of the basis on which the core category was selected.
The generation of the concepts.
The extent to which the concepts are systematically related.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

24. EVALUATING THE GROUNDED THEORY
The number and strength of the linkages between categories, and their conceptual density, leading to their explanatory power.
The extent of variation that is built into the theory.
The extent to which the explanations take account of the broader conditions that affect the phenomenon being studied.
The account taken of emergent processes over time in the research.
The significance of the theoretical findings.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

25. SOME CONCERNS IN GROUNDED THEORY
The meaning and status of theory.
The role of literature and prior disciplinary knowledge.
The question of the ‘ground’ in ‘grounded theory’.
Induction and deduction.
Generalizability.
The dependence on coding.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

26. PREPARING TO WORK IN GROUNDED THEORY
Ability to tolerate uncertainty, confusion and setbacks.
Ability to avoid premature formulation of the theory.
Ability to enable the theory to emerge through constant comparison.
Openness to what is emerging.
Ability not to force data to fit a theory but, rather, to ensure that data and theory fit together in an unstrained manner.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

27. ABILITIES REQUIRED OF THE RESEARCHER IN GROUNDED THEORY
Tolerance and openness to data and what is emerging.
Tolerance of confusion and regression.
Resistance to premature formulation of theory.
Ability to pay close attention to data.
Willingness to engage in the process of theory generation rather than theory testing; ability to work with emergent categories rather than preconceived or received categories.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors