1. Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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2. Physical Development in Early Childhood
Skeletal growth:
new epiphyses emerge
lose baby teeth
Brain development:
rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex
hemispheres continue to lateralize
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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3. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Handedness
Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere:
right-handed (90%)— left hemisphere
left-handed (10%)— both hemispheres
Jointly influenced by
nature and nurture:
position in uterus
practice
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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4. Brain Development in Early Childhood
Left hemisphere especially active:
language skills
handedness
Links among parts of the brain increase:
cerebellum
reticular formation
hippocampus
corpus callosum
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.2 Cross‐section of the human brain, showing the location of the cerebellum, the reticular formation, the hippocampus, and the corpus callosum
Figure 7.2
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5. Influences on Physical Growth and Health
Heredity and hormones:
growth hormone
thyroid-stimulating hormone
Nutrition
Infectious disease:
malnutrition
immunization
Childhood injuries
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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6. Nutrition in Early Childhood
Appetite declines
Wariness of new foods is adaptive
Needs a high-quality diet
Imitates others’ food choices
Poor-quality diet is associated with cognitive deficits and behavior problems
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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7. Infectious Disease and Malnutrition
Poor diet depresses immune system
Illness reduces appetite
Diarrhea a danger in developing countries; can be helped by
oral rehydration therapy
zinc supplements
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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8. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Immunizations
Many U.S. children lack immunizations
Reasons include
cost
parents’ stressful daily lives
misconceptions about vaccine safety
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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9. Factors Related to Childhood Injuries
Gender and temperament
Poverty, single parenthood, low parental education
Societal conditions:
international differences
teenage parents
shortage of high-quality child care
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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10. International Death Rates Due to Injury
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.3 International death rates due to unintentional injury among 1‐ to 14‐year‐olds
Figure 7.3
(Adapted from World Health Organization, 2008.)
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11. Motor Development in Early Childhood
Gross-motor skills:
balance improves
gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2
upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5
greater speed and endurance
Fine-motor skills:
self-help: dressing, eating
drawing and printing
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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12. Progression of Drawing Skills
Scribbles
First representational forms:
draws first recognizable
pictures: 3 years
draws boundaries and tadpole people: 3–4 years
More complex drawings: 5–6 years
Early printing: 4–6 years
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.4 Examples of young children’s drawings.
Figure 7.4
(Left: Reprinted by permission from Artful Scribbles by Howard Gardner. Available from Basic Books, an imprint of The Perseus Books Group. Copyright © Right: From E. Winner, “Where Pelicans Kiss Seals,” Psychology Today, 20[8], August 1986, p. 35. Reprinted by permission from the collection of Ellen Winner.)
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13. Individual Differences in Motor Skills
Gender
Boys excel in skills using force and power
Girls excel in skills using balance and agility
Practice
Adult encouragement
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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14. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Ages 2 to 7
Gains in mental representation:
make-believe play
symbol–real-world relations
Limitations in thinking:
egocentrism
lack of conservation
lack of hierarchical classification
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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15. Early Childhood Development of Make-Believe
With age, make-believe gradually
detaches from real-life conditions
becomes less self-centered
becomes more complex
Sociodramatic play develops
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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16. Benefits of Make-Believe Play
Contributes to cognitive and social skills
Strengthens mental abilities:
sustained attention
memory
language and literacy
creativity
regulation of emotion
perspective taking
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17. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Dual Representation
Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol
Strengthens around age 3
Adult teaching can help:
experiences with maps, photos, drawings, and make-believe play
pointing out similarities of symbols to real world
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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18. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Egocentrism
Failure to distinguish others’ viewpoints from one’s own
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.5 Piaget’s three‐mountains problem
Figure 7.5
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19. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Animistic Thinking
Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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20. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Conservation
Understanding that physical characteristics remain the same when appearance changes:
Centration: focus on one aspect to neglect of others
Irreversibility: inability to mentally reverse a series of steps
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.6 Some Piagetian conservation tasks.
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21. Piagetian Conservation Tasks
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.6 Some Piagetian conservation tasks
Figure 7.6
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22. Piaget’s Class Inclusion Problem
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure 7.7 A Piagetian class inclusion problem
Figure 7.7
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23. Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought
Egocentrism
Able to take others’ perspectives
Animistic thinking results from incomplete knowledge of objects
Logical thought
Conservation evident on simplified tasks
Reasons by analogy about physical changes
Categorization
Hierarchical classification evident in everyday knowledge
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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24. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Evaluation of Piaget
Development of logical operations is gradual
Disagreement over whether a preoperational stage really exists
some experts deny the stage approach
others support a flexible stage notion—a related set of competencies develops over an extended period
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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25. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Private speech
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding: support of an “expert”
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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26. Children’s Private Speech
For Piaget, “egocentric speech”
For Vygotsky, the foundation for all higher cognitive processes
Serves a self-guiding function; increases during challenging tasks
Gradually internalized as silent, inner speech
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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27. Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding:
Adults aid learning by adjusting support to child’s level of performance
Effectiveness varies culturally
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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28. Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory
Helps us understand cultural variation in cognition
Focuses on language, deemphasizes other routes to cognitive development
Says little about how basic elementary capacities (motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills) contribute to higher cognitive processes
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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29. Gains in Information Processing
Attention: inhibition, planning
Memory: recognition, recall, episodic memory
Theory of mind: false belief
Emergent literacy
Mathematical reasoning
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30. Recognition and Recall
Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced
Recall
Generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus
More difficult than recognition
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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31. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Episodic Memory
Scripts: memory for familiar everyday events
Autobiographical memory: memory for one-time events
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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32. Autobiographical Memory
Improves with cognitive and conversational skills
Influence of adult interaction:
elaborative style: fosters organized and detailed personal stories
repetitive style: weak at promoting autobiographical recall
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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33. The Young Child’s Theory of Mind
Early awareness of mental life: infancy through age 3
Mastery of false belief tasks: around age 4
Factors contributing to mastery of false belief:
language
executive function
social experiences
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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34. Fostering Emergent Literacy
Language skills:
phonological awareness
vocabulary and grammar
Informal literacy experiences:
games
interactive reading
writing
Books for low-SES
families
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35. Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning
Ordinality:
order relationships between quantities
14–16 months
Cardinality:
when counting, last number is the total
3½–4 years
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36. Individual Differences in Early Childhood Mental Development
Factors contributing to individual differences:
home environment
quality of child care, preschool, or kindergarten
child-centered vs. academic
early intervention programs
educational media
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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37. Features of a High-Quality Home Environment
Stimulation:
toys, games, reading
language
academic
Physical organization
Emotional support
Modeling and encouragement
Variety in stimulation
No physical punishment
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38. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Types of Preschool
Child-Centered
Children select from wide variety of activities
Learn through play
Academic
Teachers structure learning
Formal lessons:
letter, numbers, colors, shapes
repetition and drill
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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39. Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Physical setting
Group size
Caregiver–child ratio
Daily activities
Adult–child interactions
Teacher qualifications
Relationships with parents
Licensing and accreditation
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40. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Educational Media
Television is most common form
Slow-paced, narrative programs are most effective:
gains in early literacy, math skills
more elaborate make-believe play
higher academic achievement
Excessive entertainment TV can be harmful
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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41. Learning with Computers
Can support writing skills
Improves problem solving and metacognition
Excessive use for entertainment can be harmful
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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42. Language Development in Early Childhood
Vocabulary: fast-mapping
Grammar: overregularization
Conversation: pragmatics
Supporting language development:
recasts
expansions
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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43. Vocabulary Development
Fast-mapping:
object names
verbs
modifiers
Coins new words
Uses metaphors
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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44. Strategies for Word Learning
Mutual exclusivity bias
Shape bias
Cues in sentence structure
Rich social information
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45. Grammatical Development
Basic rules:
subject–verb–object structure between ages 2 and 3
small additions to sentences to express meaning: “-s,” variations of “to be”
Overregularization
Complex structures: question-asking, passive voice, embedded sentences, indirect objects
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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46. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Pragmatics
2-year-olds can engage in effective conversation
By age 4, adjusts speech to fit listener’s age, sex, social status
Challenging situations, such as telephone conversations
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47. Supporting Early Childhood Language
Conversation with adults
Recasts: restructuring inaccurate speech to correct form
Expansions: elaborating on children’s speech
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48. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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