1. SPHSC 303: Language Science
John C. Thorne, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

2. Morphology
Building meaningful words

3. What is a morpheme? Linguistic unit with Can be
(more or less) constant meaning
(more or less) constant form
Combine to create “words”
Can be
Content (Lexical) or Functional (Grammatical)
Free or bound
If Bound & Functional:
Inflectional or Derivational

4. Content
function
PRESS
VERT
From Parker & Riley, 2010: Linguistics for Non-linguists

5. Constant meaning E.g., plurals = more than one: written as “{PLU}”
Noun + {PLU} = Noun + “s”: “Cats” = more than one cat; Dogs = more than one dog, etc.
BUT: Man + {PLU} = Men = more than one man.
More or less constant form
NOTE: to help identify them, sometimes morphemes will be presented inside of brackets like this “{ }”.

6. Content or function Content = means something on its own
Content words.
Noun, Verb, Adjective, etc.
Function/Grammatical = express relationships between other morphemes
Function words.
Preposition, Determiner, Conjunction, Copula, etc.
If you don’t know these terms, we’ll get to them soon.

7. Free or bound Free = can stand alone as a word
Can be content (cat) or function (and)
Bound = always part of another word
Can be content ({clude} as in exclude or include)
or function ({PAST} as in Excluded)

8. Function/ Grammatical Morphemes
Their meaning involves some relationship between or character of content morphemes.
NOT related to their status as “word”
Free morphemes
But – contrast between things on each side
The – known and specific entity follows
Bound morphemes
{PLU}, {POSS} etc…

9. Derivational or Inflectional
One per word and always suffixes (sort of)
Wide application
Follow derivational in the word (usually)
Don’t change syntactic category of the word
E.g., can’t change a noun to a verb
Dog + {PLU} = “dogs”, which is still a noun.
Derivational
More than one allowed, can be prefix or suffix
Can change the syntactic category of the word

10. Fixes: Pre
Prefixes come before the word. In English they are derivational morphemes
e.g., precede = “{pre} + {cede}”,
Unclear = “{un} +{clear}”,
Decline = “{de} + {cline}”

11. Fixes: Suf
Suffixes come after the word. Most English inflectional morphemes are suffixes and all can be represented as such
Heavier = {heavy}+ {COMP}
Men = {man} + {PLU}
I run_ / he runs = {run} + {PRES}
There are also derivational suffixes, of course.

12. Fixes: In Infixes come in the middle of the word
Hizouse (true infix, limited dialect) - archaic?
Chemical names have true infixes.
“pe” and “et”
Abso-frackin-lutely
(“tmesis”) _don’t memorize this term
Man to men; drink to drank
(“apophony”) _don’t memorize this term

13. The Big 8 – English Morphology
Inflectional , that is.

14. The big 8: Inflectional Morphemes
PLURAL
{root noun} + {PLU} = boys; men, sheep.
Note that some irregulars need syntactic information to be identified.
“These sheep are…” versus “This sheep is…”
“Those fish have…” versus “That fish has…”
This works because plurality also impacts the form of other words in the utterance
“Agreement” rules
show up in {PRES} (is versus are) and the choice of demonstrative…(i.e., “This/These/Those/That” )
We’ll get back to this topic

15. The Big 8 Possessive: {root noun*} + {POSS}: pretty regular
John’s, dog’s, horse’s
Plural possessives get tricky…but syntax helps, again.
The horses
Horses = {horse} + {PLU}
The horses’ saddles were crooked.
Horses’ = {horse}+ {PLU}+{POSS}
BUT WAIT – rule: one inflectional morpheme per word.
*Technically {POSS} applies to the noun phrase, not the noun.
E.g., pronouns/proper nouns
His/her book was read. {S/he} + {POSS}
Bob’s book was read. . {Bob} + {POSS}
In multiword Noun Phrase, it will be the noun to which {POSS} attaches.
The race horses’ saddles were crooked.
This makes it look like there are TWO inflectional morphemes in “horses’”
Man + {PLU} + {POSS} , but it is really NOUN PHRASE + {POSS}

16. The Big 8 Comparative: {root adjective} + {COMP};
let’s us know that there is “comparatively more”.
Some are irregular.
Big becomes bigger = {big} + {COMP}
Good becomes better = {good} + {COMP}.
Beautiful becomes more beautiful
Not an affix and before the adjective.
Maybe this is really more syntax
Comes from “more full of beauty”

17. The Big 8 Superlative: {root adjective} + {SUP}; big becomes biggest
let’s us know it is at the pinnacle of the trait.
Some irregularity.
big becomes biggest
good becomes best
Beautiful becomes most beautiful.
Again, syntax or morphology?
Comes from “most full of beauty”

18. The Big 8 Present tense: {root verb} + {PRES}
Typically no change in the root
I/You/We/They kick the ball
kick = {kick} + {PRES}
When subject is 3rd person singular, affix is attached.
He/She/It/John/Mary/The dog kicks the ball.
kicks = {kick} + {PRES}
Note = same form as {PLU}, but not there when {PLU} is there
The dogs kick_ the ball
A few irregulars.
be: I am, you are, we are, they are, he is
do (and compounds such as "undo" and "redo"): I do, you do, we do, they do, he does
have: I have, you have, we have, they have, he has.

19. The Big 8 Past tense: {root verb} + {PAST}
Typically a suffix, but there are many irregulars (some using apophony = infix, change in vowel)
walked, drove, thought, drank, etc…
Always transcribe as a suffix
{walk}+ {PAST}; {drive}+{PAST}; {think} + {PAST}

20. Complexities and tense
If there is more than one verb in a string, which verb gets to have {PAST}?
The LEFT most verb.
Compare “I did drive/think/walk” to “I drove/thought/walked”
Compare “I was driving” to “I drove” - etc.
Others
“She did not go with me last week” vs. “She went with me last week”
“We did not work yesterday” vs “We worked yesterday”
If there is more than one verb, which verb gets {PRES}?
Compare “I drive ”/ “He drives” to “I am driving”/ “He is driving”
Compare “He works today” to “He is working today”

21. The Big 8 The Participles Similar to verbs & adjectives
English has two: Past and Present.
The present participle in English is entirely regular (__________ing).
But not all (__________ing) are present participles.
The past participle is very complex, morphologically.
i.e., it comes in a lot of different shapes.

22. The Big 8 Present Participle {root verb} + {PRES PART}
Perfectly regular:
{PRES PART} is used like this:
John is helping/ They weren’t helping/ I will be helping.
To form the progressive tense - use the appropriate form of to be from the present/past/future tense and put the present participle after.
Notice…the LEFT most verb gets the tense.
The sleeping student snored.
(a noun modifier)
Broadly speaking, the project was successful.
(a clause modifier).
NOT “gerunds” (which are “ing” nouns).
John’s sleeping put him way behind. {sleep} + {GERUND}
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO TELL THE DIFFERENCE
By what they do in the sentence

23. The Big 8 Past Participle: {root} + {PAST PART}
Usually the same form as the past tense version of the verb. Many irregulars
In simple active sentences, follow “have”
They have walked home.
In passive sentences, follow “to be” or “got”
It was given to her
It got broken in the move.

24. The Big 8 More on {PAST PART} modifying a noun, modifying a sentence:
Our fallen comrades did not make it through the test.
The attached grades show who has died
Can follow the noun as well.
The test questions encountered were fatal to some.
modifying a sentence:
Seen from this perspective, the grades were deadly serious.

25. Inflectional morphemes & syntax
From the big 8
Noun-only: {PLU}, {POSS}*
* noun-phrase, really.
Adjective-only: {COMP}, {SUP}
Verb-only: {PAST},{PRES},{PAST PART}, {PRES PART}
The presence of the inflectional morpheme tells you the syntactic category of the word.
We’ll get back to these concepts later, but morphology is influenced by a higher-level of organization, syntax.
One reason many language scientists hypothesize that the correct organization of language would include a single structure called “morphosyntax.”
Based on the idea that morphology and syntax are inextricably linked.

26. Inflectional morphemes & syntax
Inflectional morphemes can give us a hint about what syntactic slot a word is in.
The heavy/heavier book was red.
An adjective = weighty
The heavy’s book was red.
The heavies’ books were red.
Can’t be an adjective, only nouns take {PLU} & {POSS}
Must be a noun:
“Heavy” = “mobster muscle”; or “important person”

27. Inflectional morphemes & syntax
Distrubution + moprhology.
The heavy/heavier book was red.
The big/scary/informative/ book was red.
Other adjectives fit into the slot, can take {COMP}.
The heavy’s book was red.
The heavies’ books were red.
The children’s books were red;
Bob’s books were red;
Their/Her/Its books were red
Other noun phrases fit in the slot
The morphology will be consistent with other words that could fit in that place in that sentence.
The words will have a similar distribution.
A concept we will return to when we talk about syntax.

28. Derivational Morphemes
A quick discussion

29. Derivational Morphemes
Too many to go over in detail.
Grammatical, bound, can be prefix, suffix, or infix
Can change grammatical category (don’t always).
Theory to Theoretical (noun to adj)
Theory to Theorize (noun to verb)
Theoretical to Atheoretical (Adj to different Adj)
A word can have more than one, unlike inflectional morphemes
Note: {PLU} for noun {POSS} for NP

30. Other Differences Historical development
Range of application – some are very narrow
Order of appearance
Derivational suffixes precede inflectional suffixes (generally: {Universe} + {al} + {PLU} = Universals
Not Universesal = {Universe} + {PLU} + {al}
Exceptions to this rule are tough to interpret, but typically can be explained away
Spoons full → Spoonfuls;
Mothers-in-law → Mother-in-laws.

31. Clinical Use of Morphology
Reading: Brown, 1973

32. Roger Brown Wanted to know how children develop language
Did careful analysis of a set of 3 children
Identified 14 grammatical morphemes that were revealing of language development
Useful for understanding a child’s progression towards adult grammar

33. Brown’s 14 morphemes
Present Progressive Tense Marker {Pres Part}
Notice that some of the big 8 are broken up into regular and irregular forms, or their use restricted to a particular function.
e.g., {Pres Part} as a modifier is not included.
From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

34. Not in the Big 8 (exactly)
“ing” - {Pres Part} as a modifier is not included.
prepositions “in” and “on”
Articles “a/an” “the” – free, grammatical morphemes that impact “definiteness” and “specificity”
“Copula” – linking verbs such as “is” or “acts” or “seems” (i.e., He is fine. He seems fine. He acts fine.).
Auxiliary verbs (i.e., “is/was _______ing” as in “He was/is jumping”)

35. Contractible or not
Copula and Auxiliary verbs may or may not be “contractible”
Contractible Auxiliary: He’s jumping vs. He is jumping; They’re jumping vs. They are jumping.
Contractible Copula: He’s fine vs. He is fine.
Uncontractible Auxiliary: He was jumping, They were jumping.
Uncontractible Copula: He was fine. He acts fine. He seems fine.

36. Obligatory Context
Brown determined “development” by comparing to adult expectations.
Does the child use the morpheme in places that an adult would be expected to use it?
Requires a clinician to recognize obligatory contexts for these morphemes.
Let’s look at some examples

37. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

38. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

39. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

40. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

41. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

42. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

43. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

44. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

45. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

46. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

47. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

48. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

49. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

50. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

51. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

52. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

53. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

54. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

55. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

56. Obligatory Contexts From:
Retherford (2007) Guide to Analysis of Language Transcripts, 3rd Edition.

57. Obligatory Context
A child that fills these contexts with the appropriate morpheme will have longer, more complex utterances.
Counting that complexity can reveal something about their knowledge of the language
And this may tell us something about their ability to learn

58. Brown found that
Complexity of language could be measured based on how many morphemes are included in an utterance
Mean Length of Utterance in Morphemes
MLUm
Used specific, developmentally based rules to count these morphemes.
Derivational morphemes are not counted.
Might be an interesting thing to do with much older children.

59. Brown1973 .

60. Morphological impairment
A morphological impairment indicates reduced knowledge about word shapes resulting from an inability to learn that knowledge
Limited use of obligatory forms
Increased error (using form in incorrect context)
Opportunity to learn must be assessed