1. 1. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

2. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Hydrocarbons (contain only carbon and hydrogen)
Saturated: (Contain only single bonds)
Alkanes (CnH2N + 2 )
Cycloalkanes (CnH2N )
b) Unsaturated: contain
Alkenes: double bonds (,,,CnH2N)
Alkynes: triple bonds ((CnH2N - 2)
Aromatic: benzene like compounds

3. The structure of alkanes

4. Cycloalkanes:

5. Some applications of hydrocarbons in health field

6. Halothane (trademarked as Fluothane)
Is an inhalational general anesthetic.
Its IUPAC name is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane.
It is the only inhalational anesthetic agent containing a bromine atom.
It is colorless and pleasant-smelling, but unstable in light.
Side effects:
Repeated exposure to halothane in adults was noted in rare cases to result in severe liver injury

7. Chloral hydrate
Chloral hydrate induces sleep and prevent convulsions. Used for cattle, horses and poultry
2,2,2- trichloroethane-1, 1- diol

8. Other widely used haloalkanes
Ethyl chloride used as a local anesthetic
CH3-CH2-Cl
Freon-12:
Used in aerosol containers (as a refrigerator)
CCl2F2
Dichlorodifluoromethane

9. Alcohols, Thiols, Phenols, Ether

10. The general formula of alcohols is
R-OH
Where R indicates the Alkyl group attached to an –OH
R could be:
CH3,
CH3CH2-
CH3CH2CH2-, ect.,

11. Alcohols are soluble in H2O because of the
–OH group.
But as the length of the carbon chain increases, the solubility decreases
Alcohols react with acids to give compounds called esters:

12. Commonly Known as wood alcohol
USES OF ALCOHOLS
1. Methyl alcohol (methanol) CH3OH
Commonly Known as wood alcohol
The U.S. production of methanol is 1.4 billion gallons per year. Most of it is used to produce formaldehyde and other chemicals,
Is also used as an anti-freeze.
Used as a solvent in many industrial reactions.

13. It should never be applied to the body neither should the vapors be inhaled because it can be absorbed both through the skin and through the respiratory tract.
Ingestion as little as 15 ml can cause blindness (it is oxidized to formaldehyde (CH2=O), which binds to opsin, preventing formation of rhodopsin, the light-sensitive pigment needed for vision.
While 30 ml are enough to cause death.

14. Types of Alcohols 1. Primary alcohols 2. Secondary alcohols
3. Tertiary alcohols

15. Reactions of Alcohols 1. Dehydration of alcohols: For example,
Alcohols can be dehydrated by heating them with a strong acid.
For example,
When ethanol is heated at 180°C with a small amount of concentrated sulfuric acid, a good
yield of ethylene is obtained.

16. 2. Formation of Ethers

17. 3. Oxidation:
Primary alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehyde,
Further oxidation of aldehyde yields an acid.

18. Secondary Alcohols can be oxidized to give ketones
Tertiary alcohols, having no hydrogen atom on the hydroxyl-bearing carbon, do not undergo this type of oxidation

19. 4. Forming esters: Alcohols react with organic acids to give esters.

20. 2. Thiols Are sulfur analogs of alcohols and contain an
-SH functional group in place of an –OH group

21. Properties of thiols Many thiols are found in nature.
They have unpleasant odor.
Onion when cut, releases 1-propanethiol
HS-CH2-CH2-CH3
The odor of garlic is due to thiols.
Skunk when attacked it releases thiols.
Thiols added to heating - & cooking- gas to detect gas leak.

22. 3. Phenols When –OH is attached to benzene ring, phenol is formed.
Unlike alcohols, phenols are weak acids

23. Phenols react with aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to form a soluble salt:
Uses of Phenols:
1. As antiseptic
2. As disinfectant

24. 4. ethers
All ethers are compounds in which two organic groups are connected to a single oxygen atom.
The general formula for an ether is
R-O-R’
where R and R’ may be identical or different, and they may be alkyl or aryl groups.
In the common anesthetic, both R and R’ are ethyl groups.
CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3

25. Properties of ethers Low boiling point
They are good solvents because they do not react with solutions.
Ethyl ether is used to extract organic materials from naturally occurring substances.

26. Ether as anesthetic Used as a general anesthetic Advantages:
Easy to administer
Excellent muscular relaxant
Little effect on respiration, blood pressure

27. Disadventage:
Very flammable
Irritating to membrane of respiratory tract
Today ether as anesthetic has been replaced by:
Halothane
Nitrous oxide
Enflurane

28. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, And Amines

29. Aldehydes
Aldehydes are characterized by the presence of the carbonyl group CO
Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carbon atom. The remaining group may be another hydrogen atom or any aliphatic or aromatic organic group.

30. Uses of Aldehydes
1. Formalin is used as a disinfectant and preservative (used to preserve biologic specimens).
2. Formaldehyde is mostly used in the manufacture of plastics, building insulation.
3. Fumes of formaldehyde solutions are very irritating, so should not be used directly on a patient skin

31. 4. Glutaraldehyde is used as a good sterilizing agent. 5
4. Glutaraldehyde is used as a good sterilizing agent. 5. Paraldehyde is used as a hypnotic. Is formed by polymerization of 3 molecules of acetaldehydes 6. Glyceraldehyde is an important in carbohydrate metabolism

32. Ketones
The general structural formula for ketones:
R-CO-R
Preparation:
By oxidation of secondary alcohols:

33. Uses of ketones
1. Acetone is a good solvent for fats and oils 2. Acetone is used in fingernail polish and polish removal 3. Acetone is normally present in small amounts in blood & urine. But in diabetes mellitus it is present in higher concentration. 4. Dihydroxyacetone is an intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism HO-CH2-CO-CH2OH

34. Hemiacetals and hemiketals
1. Reaction of an aldehyde with an alcohol yields compounds known as Hemiacetals

35. 2. Reactions of a ketone with an alcohol yields compounds known as Hemiketals

36. If a hemiacetal or a hemiketal reacts with a second alcohol, an acetal or ketal respectively is formed.
+ R”’-OH R’-C-OR”’ RO OR C OH R’ R”
R’’
Ketal

37. The Hemiacetals/Acetals & Hemiketal/Ketals are important in understanding the structures of monosaccharides

38. Carboxylic Acids Functional group is (-COOH)
Preparation by oxidation of an aldehyde:
H OH
R-C=O [ O ] R-C=O
CH3-CHO [O] CH3-CO-OH
acetic acid
Acid

39. Oxidation CH3-OH yields CH2=O
Oxidation of aldehyde yields carbooxylic acid (HCOOH; formic acid)
Formic acid is also named as methanoic acid
CH3CH2-OH CH3COOH
Ethanol acetic acid
[O]

40. Properties & Reactions of Organic Acids
1. Most organic acids are relatively weak acids, since they dissociate only slightly in water:
CH3COOH H CH3COO-
2. Organic acids react with bases to form salts and water:
RCOOH + NaOH RCOONa + H2O
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

41. 3. They react with bicarbonates and carbonates:
CH3COOH + NaHCO CH3COONa+CO2(g) + H2O
2 HCOOH + NaCO HCOONa + CO2(g) + H2O
4. Organic acids with few carbon atoms are soluble in water. As the length of the carbon chain increases, the solubility in water decreases.

42. 5. Organic acid react with alcohols to form esters
5. Organic acid react with alcohols to form esters. RCOOH + R-OH R-CO-OR + H2O

43. Medically Important Organic Acids
1. Formic acid HCOOH is formed in bees sting & ants, and causes the characteristic pain and swelling when it is injected into tissues.
2. Acetic acid, CH3COOH found in vinegar in 4 to 5 % solution.

44. 3. Citric acid Found in citrus fruits
- Magnesium citrate, a salt of citric acid
Is used as a cathartic to stimulate evacuation of bowels
- Sodium citrate, used as a blood anticoagulant (it removes Ca2+ needed for coagulation from the blood)

45. 4. Lactic Acid
CH3-CH(OH)-COOH
Found in sour milk.
It is formed whenever the body produces energy anaerobically
5. Oxalic acid HOOC-COOH
A strong naturally occurring acid
Used to remove stains from clothing
It is poisonous when taken internally

46. Oxalate salts prevent clotting by chelating Ca2+
From blood (however it should not be applied directly on the blood due to it’s toxicity)
6. Pyruvic acid
Produced during glycolysis.
In muscle pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid during anaerobic exercise
In tissues pyruvate is converted to acetyl-Coenzyme A, which enters the Krebs cycle.

47. It is both an acid & alcohol HOOC-CH-CH-COOH OH OH
7. Tartaric acid
It is both an acid & alcohol
HOOC-CH-CH-COOH
OH OH
2, 3-dihydroxysuccinic acid
Found in several fruits such as grapes and bananas
Potassium hydrogen tartarate is used in making baking powder.
Rochelle salt or potassium sodium tartarate used as a mild cathartic.

48. - Is a fatty acid, insoluble in water C17H35COOH
8. Stearic acid:
- Is a fatty acid, insoluble in water
C17H35COOH
- Is a solid greasy like acid
Sodium stearate is the commonly used soap
C17H35COOH +NaOH C17H35COONa + H2O