1. Video Self-Modeling Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Disabilities
Wendi L. Johnson, PhD, LP, LSSP, NCSP
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology and Philosophy

2. Outline of Presentation
Overview of Video Self-Modeling (VSM)
Theoretical Basis for VSM
Research foundation for VSM
Integration and Application of VSM
Current research project
Examples of VSM

3. Video Self-Modeling
Self-modeling vs. Video Modeling vs. Video Self-modeling
Definition of Video Self-Modeling (VSM)
“A specific application of video modeling that allows the individual to imitate targeted behaviors by viewing her or himself successfully performing the behavior” (Dowrick, 1999)

4. Theoretical Basis for VSM
Social Learning Theory (Bandura,1977, 1997)
Learning and imitating through observation
Self-efficacy – develop through viewing themselves as being successful
Possible decrease in anxiety vs. in vivo role plays
Attention and motivation are moderating variables
For example, students with autism often exhibit over-selective attention or attend to irrelevant details
With VSM this can be removed through editing = better to focus on essential aspects of targeted behaviors and not extraneous details
- Children more likely to attend to a model they perceive as competent and who is similar to themselves in some way
- self-efficacy – people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance over events that affect their lives” Bandura 1994

5. Types of VSM Positive self-review Video feed forward
Student viewing behaviors currently in repertoire
For low frequency, already mastered behaviors
Accomplished by watching one’s own best performance
Video feed forward
Individual possesses a component of the social skill, “hidden” supports are utilized and then edited out
Children view themselves as they might be behaving at a future time

6. Another VSM Technique to Consider
Filming the VSM in first person perspective
Can be utilized either with positive self review or feed forward methods.
Filmed from a “Point of View” perspective where the video is recorded as if the student is watching their behavior from their own eyes.
Can be effective for some children to see the video filmed from their perspective.

7. VSM Point of View Example
Video example here

8. How does VSM work? Strengths based educational programming
Positive outcomes often occur along with decreases in inappropriate behaviors
Can target specific skills which are pivotal in development
Outcomes are typically maintained and produce generalization across settings
Videos are portable, collaboration
between parents and school staff is easily facilitated

9. Utility of VSM
VSM has a strong research base with children with autism focusing on teaching language, functional skills, social skills, and adaptive behaviors
Students with ASD are often visually- based learners
Can be used with behaviors that have been resistant to other interventions
Provides motivation –
videos of self are often
highly desired

10. Application and Research Basis for VSM
Language development (Buggey, 1995, Haarman & Greelis, 1982; Wert & Neisworth, 2003)
Reading fluency (Decker 2001; Greenberg, Buggey, & Bond, 2003; Hitchcock, Prater, & Dowrick, 2004)
Daily Living Skills (Miklich, Chida, & Danker-Brown, 1977)
Depression (Kahn, Kehle, Jensen, & Clark, 1990)
Self-efficacy (Schunk & Hansen, 1989)
Disruptive and Non-compliant Behaviors (Buggey, 2005; McCurdy & Shapiro, 1988; Hosford & Brown, 1976; Creer & Miklich, 1970)

11. Application and Research Basis for VSM
Mathematics (Schunk & Hanson, 1989)
Stuttering (Bray & Kehle, 1996)
Social Engagement (Bellini, Akullian, & Hopf, 2007; Buggey, Toombs, Gerdener, & Cervetti, 1999; Hepting & Goldstein, 1992; Pigott & Gonzales, 1987)
Motor Skills (Dowrick, 1983; Dowrick & Dove, 1980)
Selective Mutism (Kehle, Madaus, Baratta, & Bray, 1998)
Attention Difficulties (Davis, 2004; Hartley, Bray, & Kehle, 1998)

12. Steps to addressing a social behavior using VSM
1. Identify the behavior or skill to target
2. Do a task analysis, Functional Behavioral Assessment
3. Identify the replacement behaviors
4. Figuring out how to get it on video
Role plays
Imitation

13. Addressing social deficits with VSM
Different formats for filming
Make a story board or provide visual cues
Unscripted or naturalistic
Movie set-up with a director, a star and a co-star
Practice various role plays prior to filming
Utilizing clips for a social story

14. Storyboard example

15. How to utilize VSM Steps of video editing
Film various segments (tripod seems to work better for editing purposes)
Download clips to computer
Watch each clip and note times of best examples of target behavior
Splice together chosen clips into “movie”
Add title page, credits (“stars and co-stars”), and music if you’d like
If words are added, possibly use Windows Movie Maker

16. Before Editing
Video example
Note the background noise and prompting.

17. After Editing
Video example here

18. VSM “Do’s” Get informed consent Make the filming process fun
Depict positive behaviors
Select behaviors that are developmentally appropriate
Keep the video under 5 minutes
Ensure confidentiality if the video will be used by schools or agencies
Connect VSM to an educational goal if utilized in school setting
Get informed consent
Make the filming process fun
Include the child in on the planning when possible
Learn new technology skills
Allow the child to view the video daily and when requested if possible
Allow the child to watch the video without adult comment if the video includes a clear written or verbal statement about the featured behavior

19. Overview of VSM Study
The primary purpose of the study is to examine the efficacy and utility of VSM interventions with children and adolescents with various disabilities by targeting behavioral, social, or functional/adaptive skill deficits.
A secondary goal is to determine the usefulness of this intervention to parents and teachers and the social validity of using VSM in the schools. With most teachers feeling overwhelmed by trying to balance expectations related to state testing, teaching, federal guidelines, and paperwork, it is crucial to find interventions that are not only cost-effective but also user-friendly. If an intervention is too time-consuming or effortful, then it will likely not be utilized in the classroom.

20. Overview of VSM Study
A multiple-baseline across persons design was utilized with pre-testing and post-testing to determine if there is an increase in the desired behavior across settings.
The participants were currently enrolled elementary, middle, and high school students from general and special educational classes in a suburban school district north of Dallas, TX. The dependent variable was the increased frequency or quality of behavioral, social, or functional goal designed for each individual. Each participant was a part of a small group with baseline data collected on each individual. Once consent was obtained from the parent or adult student, the research began with three distinct phases – the baseline assessment phase, the VSM intervention phase, and the post-intervention assessment phase
Grades PK-12, 4,087 students , 5 schools

21. VSM Study Phases
Baseline Phase – consisted of parent, teacher, and student interview, two classroom observations, and completion of parent and teacher standardized measures.
Intervention Phase
Group session #1 - focus on building rapport between the facilitator/s and the participants, discussion of confidentiality, session activities, and positive reinforcement.
Group session #2 - engage participants in role plays (e.g., acting out scripted scenarios of positive behavior) and activities to practice the desired behavior.
Group sessions #3 and #4 - focus on obtaining the desired behavior on video through peer modeling, role plays, or scaffolding supports (i.e., leader prompting what to say or modeling how to act out the behavior).

22. VSM Study Phases Intervention Phase (continued)
Group session #5 - allows each participant to watch their movie 10 consecutive school days and gain reinforcement for watching it on non-session days.
Group session #6- conclude the sequence by discussing the positive behavior and how to generalize that behavior to new settings.
Post-Intervention Phase
Parents and teachers will be provided with the results in the form of graphs charting the frequency of the targeted behavior before and after the VSM intervention.
Parents will also be provided the VSM movie of their child if desired.
The post-intervention phase should be completed over approximately a 3 week period.

23. Initial Pilot Study VSM Groups
Five subgroups based on eligibility and age
ADHD/ED subgroup – elementary age
Autism Groups – 2 concurrent groups, one younger elementary and one older elementary
Intellectual Disability subgroups
High School
Middle School

24. VSM Example : Bryan SPED Eligibility of Emotional Disturbance
Behavioral Target: reacting in anger when things did not go his way
Video needed to be bright and attention-grabbing

25. Video example here
This video is attention-grabbing with color and sound-effects.
Prior to the intervention, this student had difficulty coping when things did not go his way, as negative comments directed toward himself and others were observed. His video focuses on game-playing, as this was an activity in which he exhibited these behaviors frequently.

26. Current Study
Similar model to pilot study however, the application varied depending on the population
Preschool Population – integration of music to aid in the learning of the target skill
Emotional Disturbance – focus on changes between elementary, middle and high school populations, as well as the impact of self-esteem
ADHD – focus on executive functioning skills, with additional neuropsychology testing pre/post and a control group to compare outcomes
Autism – similar method to the pilot study

27. Example of Preschool VSM with the Integration of Music Therapy
Video example here

28. Parent Feedback
“He used to ask me to do everything - get a drink of water, help him with getting ready for bed. Since watching, he has done these type of things on his own.”
“We recently went to Six Flags with some cousins we see once a month. He is usually shy and does not converse with them. This time he was talking and answering questions, and he actually asked a couple on his own.”
“He has been expressing when he is frustrated by saying ‘I’m frustrated’ instead of acting out. He seems to have gotten better at recognizing AND expressing emotions.”
“He took away more than we’ll know. This is something we definitely want to continue in the future.”

29. References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Oxford England: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1994). Regulative function of perceived self-efficacy. Personnel selection and classification (pp ). Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY US: W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co.
Bellini, S. (2006). Building Social Relationships. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.
Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of video modeling and video self-modeling interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 73,
Buggey, T. (2007). A picture is worth…:Video self-modeling applications at school and home. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9 (2),
Buggey, T. (2009). Seeing is Believing. Bethseda, MD: Woodbine House.
Gresham, F. M. & Elliot, S. N. (1984). Assessment and classification of children’s social skills: A review of methods and issues. School Psychology Review, 13,
Hitchcock, C., Dowrick, P., & Prater, M. (2003). Video self-modeling intervention in school-based settings: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 24, doi: /

30. Questions or Discussion