1. BASICS OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SVNIT, SURAT
BASICS OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BY: ANKIT DHIMMAR

2. SYLLABUS ECE107 : Basic of Electronics Engineering COURSE OUTCOMES
After studying this course, students will be able to analyze the various electronic Components like BJT, FET,MOSFET, DIODES, OP AMP, and ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS etc.
COURSE CONTENT
PN DIODE AND DC POWER SUPPLY
GENERAL DIODES THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
Photodiode theory, V-I charactristics and application, LED Theory, 7 segment LED circuit diagram and Multi colour LED, LED applications, LCD Theroy and application, Varactor Diode Theory and application,Shockley Diode Theroy and characterstics, PIN diode theory and characteristics, LASER diode theory and applications.

3. BJT CONFIGURATION AND APPLICATIONS
FET AND MOSFET THEORY
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND APPLICATIONS
Introduction to OP-AMP with block diagram, Schematic Symbol of OP-AMP, The 741 package style and pinouts, Inverting amplifier, Non-inverting amplifier, Voltage Follower circuit, Multistage OP-AMP circuit,OP-AMP averaging amplifier, OP-AMP subtractor
DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS
Role and Important of General purpose test instrument, Cathode-RAY Oscilloscope(CRO), and Digital storage Oscilloscope(DSO), Theory and applications, Function Generator, Different Power supply, Digital Multi-meter (DMM)

4. Books recommended
1. Malvin Albert & David J. Bates, "Electronic Principles" Tata McGraw Hill, 7th edition, Boylestad Robert L. & Nashlesky Louis, "Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory", PHI Publication, 8th edition, Mehta V. K. & Mehta Rohit, "Principles of Electronics" S. Chand & Co. Ltd., 11th Revised Ed Thomas L. Floyd, "Electronics Devices", Pearson Education, 7th Ed., Cheruku D. R. and Battula T. K., "Electronics Devices & Circuits", Pearson Educations, 2nd Ed De Debashis, "Basic of Electronics", Pearson Education, 1st Ed., 2008.

5. DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS

6. outline Role and Important of General purpose test instrument,
Cathode-RAY Oscilloscope(CRO),
Digital storage Oscilloscope(DSO),
Function Generator,
Different Power supply,
Digital Multi-meter (DMM)

7. Role and Importance of General Purpose test Instruments
General-purpose test instruments consist of products such as oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, signal generators, video test equipment, automotive test equipment, and many more. These products are used across multiple applications in environments ranging from labs to manufacturing facilities.

8. Signal Generator
A signal generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating electronic signals in either the analog or the digital domain. It is generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electroacoustic devices, though it often has artistic uses as well.
There are many different types of signal generators with different purposes and applications and at varying levels of expense. These types include function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators and frequency generators.
Traditionally, signal generators have been embedded hardware units, but since the age of multimedia PCs, flexible, programmable software tone generators have also been available.

10. CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

11. What is an Oscilloscope?
Introduced by German Physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897.
"The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device - it draws a graph of an electrical signal”.
Oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time. Other signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.
Electrical Signal Visual signal
ALSO CALLED electron beam voltmeter.

12. Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical signal over time, such that voltage and time describe a shape which is continuously graphed against a calibrated scale. The observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion and others.

14. This simple graph can tell you many things about a signal
This simple graph can tell you many things about a signal. Here are a few:
You can determine the time and voltage values of a signal.
You can calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal.
You can see the "moving parts" of a circuit represented by the signal.
You can tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal.
You can find out how much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).
You can tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time.

15. What Can You Do With It? Television repair technicians. Physicists.
Oscilloscopes are used by everyone.
Television repair technicians.
Physicists.
An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to measure engine vibrations.
A medical researcher uses an oscilloscope to measure brain waves.
The possibilities are endless.

16. TYPES
ANALOG
DIGITAL
“An analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen."
"In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to convert the voltage being measured into digital information."

18. Major blocks in Block Diagram
1. CRT 2. Vertical amplifier 3. Delay line 4. Time base generator 5. Horizontal amplifier 6. Trigger circuit 7. Power supply

19. CRT
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube.
Cathode Ray Tube is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons emitted by the electron gun strikes the phosphorus screen of the CRT, a visual signal is displayed on the CRT.

20. Internal Structure of CRT
H.T. supply
heater supply
y plates
x plates + -
phosphor screen
anode

21. Function of Components of CRT
H.T. supply
heater supply
y plates
x plates + -
phosphor screen
anode
electron gun produces a beam of electrons
light produced on the screen by electron beam
a p.d. across the y-plates deflects the trace vertically
a p.d. across the x plates deflects the trace horizontally

22. Delay Line Vertical Amplifier
In Vertical Amplifier, The input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier. Usually, the vertical amplifier is a wide band amplifier which passes the entire band of frequencies.
Delay Line
Delay Line as the name suggests that, this circuit is used to, delay the signal for a period of time in the vertical section of CRT until the trigger and time base circuit start the sweep of the beam. The input signal is not applied directly to the vertical plates because the part of the signal gets lost, when the delay Time not used. Therefore, the input signal is delayed by a period of time

23. Horizontal Amplifier Time Base Generator
Time base circuit uses a uni junction transistor, which is used to produce the sweep. The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit is required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The spot is deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a constant time dependent rate.
Horizontal Amplifier
In Horizontal Amplifier, The saw tooth voltage produce by the time base circuit is amplified by the horizontal amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection plates.

24. Power Supply Trigger Circuit
Well when an signal is applied to the input of the CRO we require a mechanism that tells the CRO to trace the input signal on the display. This mechanism is called the CRO Triggering Circuit.
Power Supply
The Power supply voltages require by CRT, horizontal amplifier and vertical amplifier are provided by the power supply block.

25. Power supply block of oscilloscope is classified in to two types
Negative high voltage supply
Positive low voltage supply
The voltages of negative high voltage supply is from -1000V to -1500V and the range of positive voltage supply is from 300V to 400V approx.

26. HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION SYSTEM

28. Vertical Position Y offset varying in a sine wave

29. Horizontal position control from X offset increasing

30. Increasing time base time/division

31. Dual trace controls

32. USES As picture Tube in TV Radar System to detect enemy aircraft.
To measure voltage or current, the drop across a resistor is measured.
To study waveforms: A visual display is seen.
Measurement of frequency and phase angle.
etc.

33. Limitations of CRO Short storage duration(waveform may lose)
Low data writing rate(limits the speed of analog storage oscilloscope)
Inability to store multiple images

35. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
DSO
DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

36. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOE

37. Sample-and-Hold (S/H) circuit and an analog to digital converter (ADC) which continuously samples and digitizes the input signal at a rate determined by the sample clock and transmit the digitized data to memory for storage.
The control circuit determines whether the successive data points are stored in successive memory location or not, which is done by continuously updating the memories.
When the memory is full, the next data point from the ADC is stored in the first memory location writing over the old data.
The data acquisition and the storage process is continues till the control circuit receive a trigger signal from either the input waveform or an external trigger source.

38. When the triggering occurs, the system stops and enters into the display mode of operation in which all or some part of the memory data is repetitively displayed on the cathode ray tube.
In display operation, two DACs are used which gives horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the CRT Data from the memory gives the vertical deflection of the electron beam, while the time base counter gives the horizontal deflection in the form of staircase sweep signal. 

39. The screen display consist of discrete dots representing the various data points but the number of dot is very large as 1000 or more that they tend to blend together and appear to be a smooth continuous waveform.
The display operation ends when the operator presses a front-panel button and commands the digital storage oscilloscope to begin a new data acquisition cycle.

41. Introduction of function generator
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies.

42. Function Generator used to generate various kind of waveform like………
1) Triangular Wave
2) Sine Wave
3) Square Wave
4) Saw tooth Wave etc…
The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.

43. Function Generator
In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of current that drives the integrator. This instrument provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

44. Triangle wave
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose frequency can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps. 
This triangular wave is used as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source.
This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave.
By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained.

45. Procedure: Integrator circuit to produce the Triangle wave
In this circuit capacitor is used as a feedback element.
The circuit connection is shown in figure.

46. As before the negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input will be held at 0 volts(virtual ground). If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts there will be no current through the resistor. Therefore no charging of the capacitor , and there output voltage will be not change. We cannot guarantee what voltage will be at output with respect to ground in this condition but we can say that output voltage is constant.
If we apply a constant positive voltage to the input, the op-amp output will not fall negative at a linear rate, in attempt to produced the changing voltage across the capacitor necessary to maintain the current established by the voltage difference across the resistor. A constant negative voltage at the input result in linear, rising voltage at the output. The output voltage rate of change will be proportional to the value of the input voltage.

49. SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR Fig. Multivibrator
First the inverting terminal (2) is at zero potential and the input at the non-inverting terminal (3) has some potential V1. This occurs due to the power supply of the operational amplifier. The potential difference between the two input terminals is Vi= V1-0 = V1.

50. This ‘+ ve’ voltage drives the output of operational amplifier into ‘+ ve’ saturation voltage (+Vsat).
When the + Vsat is fed back to the inverting terminal (2) through the resistor R, the capacitor C gets charged and the potential of the right side plate of the capacitor gradually rises (or) the V2 value rises.
When V2 becomes slightly more than V1, the input becomes ‘–ve' and immediately this ‘–ve’ voltage drives the output of the operational amplifier in to ‘–ve’ saturation voltage (- Vsat).

51. Now the capacitor discharges gradually
Now the capacitor discharges gradually. When V2 becomes less than V1 and (V1 – V2) becomes ‘+ve’ and the output drives to +Vsat. The same process is repeated and the output of the operational amplifier swings between two saturation voltages i.e. between + Vsat and - Vsat. The output Eo of the operational amplifier is square wave.

52. SINE WAVE GENERATOR
Sine wave can be generated from triangular wave using Resistor-diode shaping Network.
Procedure:
While the diodes are reverse-biased neither shunt branch conducts, and Vo = V, i.e., the output voltage follows the ramp.
Suppose V1 < V2 is 0.5 volt. Then when the input voltage reaches 0.5 volt D1 begins to conduct. The output voltage is given by
Vo= (V-0.5)(R1/(1+R1))
and setting Vo = when V=1 requires R1 = 2.73 ohm. Similarly set Vo = 1 volt when V = 1.5V (with V2 = volt) calculate. Note that D1 is conducting in this interval. Calculate R2= 0.42 ohm.

56. The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources.
Current supply source 1 supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.
The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level, of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and switches to the supply source 2.

57. The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time. When the output attains a pre­determined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on to the current supply source.
The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on the current supplied by the constant current supply sources.
The comparator output provides a square wave of the same frequency as output. 
The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.

58. Digital Multimeter
Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic measurement task in one tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm meter. The standard and basic measurements performed by multimeter are the measurements of amps, volts, and ohms. Apart from that, these digital multimeters perform many additional measurements by using digital and logic technology. These may include temperature, frequency, continuity, capacitance etc.
The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more efficient, faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter. But in the case of additional features, it is not accurate but close to the reading.

60. Working Principle

61. As shown in block diagram, in a typical Digital multimeter the input signal i.e ac or dc voltage, current, resistance, temperature or any other parameter is converted to dc voltage within the range of the ADC.
The analog to digital converter then converts the pre-scaled dc voltage into its equivalent digital numbers which will be displayed on the display unit.
Digital controller: This block will coordinate all the internal functions as well as transferring information to external devices such as printers or personnel computer.

62. Characteristics of digital meters
Resolution
Sensitivity
Accuracy

63. resolution
It is defined as number of digit positions or simply the number of digits used in a meter.
Hence a 3 digit display on a digital meter for a 0-1 V range will be able to indicate from 000 to 999mV, with smallest increment (resolution) of 1 mV.
If the number of full digit is n, then resolution
R=1/10^n

64. sensitivity
It is the smallest change in input whish a digital meter is able to detect.
Thus, the full scale value of the lowest voltage range multiplied by the resolution of the meter.
S= (fs)min*R
Where (fs)min is the lowest full scale value of digital meter &
R is resolution in decimal.

65. Accuracy
The accuracy specifications of digital meter normally include two quantities:
A percentage of range
A percentage of reading

66. Different type of power supply
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load.
The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters.
Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.

67. Classification of power supply
Functional
Mechanical
Power conversion method

68. Switched mode Power supply
Types
AC-DC
Linear Regulator
AC Power
Switched mode Power supply
Programmable
Uninterruptible
High Voltage DC

69. TYPES
DC-A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.
AC to DC- DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source.
Linear- The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive current).
AC-An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.

70. SMPS- An electrical power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiency.
Advantage
Lower weight
Small size
Higher efficiency
Lower power dissipation
Reduced costs
Disadvantage
Complexity of circuit

71. Programmable-A programmable power supply is one that allows remote control of its operation through an analog input or digital interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Controlled properties may include voltage, current, and in the case of AC output power supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, semiconductor fabrication, and x-ray generators.
UPS-An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. In a computer installation, this gives the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to continuously supply power to a system in parallel with power coming from the AC.

72. High voltage power supply-A high voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts.
High voltage power supplies typically apply the bulk of their input energy to a power inverter, which in turn drives a voltage multiplier or a high turns ratio, high voltage transformer, or both (usually a transformer followed by a multiplier) to produce high voltage. The high voltage is passed out of the power supply through the special connector, and is also applied to a voltage divider that converts it to a low voltage metering signal compatible with low voltage circuitry.