1. The Sino-British College, USST Second Annual Conference and Learning and Teaching Forum

2. David Warner Dr. Joanna Sessford
Learning Chinese – What Me? Why? Willingness to Communicate as a Factor in Determining Whether Foreigners Attain a Non-Programmed Level of Chinese Language Proficiency in Shanghai
David Warner
Dr. Joanna Sessford

3. WTC
Traditional – Emphasis on grammatical competence  High linguistic competence
Modern – Emphasis on communicative competence  High technical capability
The ultimate goal of language learning is to create a willingness to communicate (WTC).

4. Early Conception of WTC
WTC as stable personality trait linked to:
Communication apprehension
Perceived communication competence
Introversion-extroversion
Self-esteem
(McCroskey & Baer, 1985)

5. Early Conception of WTC
Theory of Reasoned Action
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980)
Theory of Planned Behavior
(Ajzen, 1988)
Intention must combine with opportunity to produce a particular behavior.

6. Programmed vs. Non-Programmed Language Ability
Programmed Language: Routine, repetitive, conditions are highly certain, solutions involve habit, rule or procedure
Ex. Ordering food, asking for directions, basic questions
Non-Programmed Language: Unique, novel, uncertain conditions, no pre-established rules.

7. HSK (汉语水平考试) Levels 1-3  Programmed Language (Control)
Levels 4-6  Non-Programmed Language (Affiliation)

8. Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC
Top layers are situation-specific:
Communication Behavior
Behavioral Intention
Situated Antecedents
Bottom layers are enduring influences:
Motivational Propensities
Affective-Cognitive Context
Social and Individual Context

9. Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC
(MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, Kimberly & Noels, 1998)

10. Situation-Specific Influences
Communication Behavior: Speaking, reading, watching or using the L2.
Behavioral Intention: Readiness to enter into discourse with specific person in the L2.
Situated Antecedents:
Desire to Communicate with a Specific Person
State Communicative Self-Confidence
State Perceived Confidence + Lack of Anxiety

11. Enduring Influences Motivational Propensities:
Interpersonal Motivation (Control / Affiliation)
Intergroup Motivation (Belonging to a particular group)
L2 Self-Confidence (Belief in efficient communication skill)
Affective-Cognitive Context:
Intergroup Attitudes (Integrativeness)
Social Situation (Pleasantness of L2 experiences)
Communicative Competence (Actual L2 proficiency)
Social and Individual Context:
Intergroup Climate (Demographic representation)
Personality (Trait-based personality types)

12. Primary Research
Survey given to 33 adult foreign nationals living and working in Shanghai.
Analyzed against the Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC (MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, Kimberly & Noels, 1998) to determine whether WTC is a factor in foreigners failure to achieve non-programmed L2 skills.

13. Findings – Background Info
Duration of Stay:
91% of respondents lived in Shanghai for more than 3 years; 61% for over 6 years.
Chinese Level:
16% advanced, 28% intermediate
Lack of WTC:
63% stopped studying Chinese

14. Findings – Need for L2 Learning
Respondents rate 3.9 out of 5 that immigrants should learn the language of their home country.
Thus, it stands to reason that foreigners would believe it is important to study Chinese when living in China.

15. Reasons for Ceasing L2 Learning
71% = Lack of time
62% = They had learned enough
29% = The learning curve was too steep
24% = Non-conducive teaching style
14% = Too expensive

16. Conclusions
Foreigners in Shanghai have a lack of willingness to communicate, primarily due to situated antecedents and the affective-cognitive context.
Situated Antecedent  Lack of desire to communicate with a specific person
Affective-Cognitive Context  Social situation

17. Situated Antecedents State Communicative Self-Confidence:
Perceived Competence  high due to praise
Lack of Anxiety  How uncomfortable respondents felt if their Chinese was misunderstood = 2.5 out of 5 (low anxiety)
Desire to Communicate with a Specific Person:
0%  All relationships would be in Chinese
16%  Majority of relationships in Chinese
39%  Half of relationships in Chinese
35%  Minority of relationships in Chinese
10%  None of their relationships in Chinese

18. Correlation of Living Outside Shanghai with Positive L2 Experience
Chi-Squared Test at 5% significance level (x2=4.6, df=1) showed a correlation with whether foreigners had lived outside Shanghai and whether half or majority of friendships would be conducted in Chinese.
May also be related to relatively high number of English speakers in Shanghai.

19. Affective-Cognitive Context
Intergroup Attitudes (Integrativeness)
Social Situation: The experiences one has with members of the L2 community and general pleasantness of L2 experience.
Communicative Competence (Actual L2 proficiency)

20. Integrativeness
Having a positive attitude toward the L2 community and a desire to affiliate. (Gardner, 1985)
Increased involvement, frequency and quality of contact with the L2 community
May increase motivation to learn the L2

21. Conclusions
Foreigners seem motivated to learn Chinese primarily for control rather than for affiliation purposes.
Foreigners do study Chinese for purposes of integrativeness (67% studied Chinese to “better understand Chinese culture).

22. THANK YOU