1. Witkin’s Field Dependence and Field Independence Nisbett’s Holistic and Analytic

2. Overview
Fifty years ago, Witkin (1948) discovered that individual differences in the effects of visual cues are not merely errors of method, but that people show remarkable consistency in degree of field dependence on tests of orientation perception (Goodenough, 1986).
After fiddling with a perception test using rods and frames, Witkin finally developed the Embedded Figures Test to determine the degree of field dependence or independence we each possess.
No other cognitive style has been more researched in our history than that of field dependence-independence.

3. Embedded Figure Example

4. Basic Concepts
A field-dependent person has difficulty finding a geometric shape that is embedded or "hidden" in a background with similar (but not identical) lines and shapes. The conflicting patterns distract the person from identifying the given figure.
A person who is field-independent can readily identify the geometric shape, regardless of the background in which it is set. This manner of interpretation, however, is not limited to visual cues. Many researchers are studying auditory and other sensory perception abilities that may vary from person to person. There is also a strong connection between this cognitive style and social interactions.

5. Basic Concepts: Field Dependence
People who are field-dependent are frequently described as being very interpersonal and having a well-developed ability to read social cues and to openly convey their own feelings.
Others describe them as being very warm, friendly, and personable.
Interestingly, Witkin and Donald Goodenough, in their 1981 book Cognitive Styles, explained that this may be due to a lack of separation between the self and the environment (or "field") on some level.
Field-dependent people notice a lack of structure in the environment (if it exists) and are more affected by it than other people.

6. Basic Concepts: Field Independence
Individuals who are field-independent use an "internal" frame of reference and can easily impose their own sense of order in a situation that is lacking structure.
They are also observed to function autonomously in social settings.
They are sometimes described as impersonal and task-oriented.
These people, however, do have the ability to discern their own identity of self from the field.
In addition, a strong correlation has been discovered between gender and field orientation. Women are more likely to be field-dependent, whereas men are frequently field-independent.
Career tasks and job descriptions are also closely aligned with field-dependence/field-independence.

7. Field Dependence-Independence
Field dependence-independence describes the extent to which:
The surrounding framework dominates the perception of items within it,
The surrounding organized field influences a person's perception of items within it,
A person perceives part of the field as a discrete form,
The organization of the prevailing field determines the perception of its components, or
A person perceives analytically.

8. Field Dependent vs Independent Persons
Field Dependent Persons
Are reliant on external referents as a result of their amount of differentiation of self from non-self.
Rely more on the teacher and peer support.
Field Independent Persons
Depend more on self and seem readily to learn material that has a social context.
Appear to be more adept to the unstructured classroom than their field dependent counterparts.
Have a greater development of cognitive restructuring skills.
Tend to be more analytical and attends less to peer pressure or teacher direction.

9. Global and Articulated
When field dependents interact with stimuli,
they find it difficult to locate the information they are seeking because other information masks what they are looking for.
Field independents find it easier to recognize and select the important information from its surrounding field.
When information is presented in an ambiguous, unstructured format,
The field independent will impose his/her own structure on the information.
The field dependent will attempt to understand and learn that information as it is presented and without restructuring it.
Another way to look at field dependence and independence is through a global versus articulated cognitive style.
Those with a global perspective, field dependents, see things in the entire perceptual field (the forest rather than the trees). In other words, field dependents have difficulty separating the part from the complex organization of the whole.
The analytic style presented by field independents allows them to create their own models for things they want to understand or articulate to others.

10. Skill at Learning Tasks
Field Dependents will excel at:
Group-oriented and collaborative work situations where individuals need to be sensitive to social cues from others
Situations where participants must follow a standardized pattern of performance
Tests requiring learners to recall information in the form or structure that it was presented
Knowledge domains that focus on social issues
Field Independents will excel at:
Selecting information sources
Searching for and validating information
Transferring knowledge (predicting, inferring, or evaluating)
Generating metaphors and analogies
Evaluating knowledge
Analyzing information structurally

11. Use of Learning Strategies
Field Dependents can use:
Concentration on information
Repetition or rehearsal of information to be recalled
Field Independents can use:
Problem solving
Situations in which learners must figure out the underlying organization of ideas in the domain, such as concept mapping or outlining
Language learning
Identifying the salient or important aspects of any body of information, especially when that information is ambiguous or disorganized
Transfer tasks where operation must be transferred to novel situations
Performance-based assessment

12. Educational Settings that Favor
Field Dependents:
Providing a social learning environment
Offering deliberate structural support with cues such as advanced organizers
Providing clear, explicit directions and a maximum amount of guidance
Including orienting strategies before instruction
Providing extensive feedback
Presenting outlines or graphic organizers of content
Providing examples
Embedding questions throughout learning
Field Independents:
Providing an independent learning environment
Utilizing discovery teaching methods
Providing large amounts of reference and resource materials to sort through
Providing independent, self-instruction
Providing minimal guidance and direction
Creating outlines, pattern notes, concept maps, etc.

13. Global/Analytic Learning
learn the concepts first
then concentrate on details
like to be introduced to information with humor and color
can work with distracters
take frequent breaks
work on several tasks simultaneously most gifted children are global
need lessons that are interesting to them
discover through group learning (small group techniques)
need written and tactual involvement
respond well to pictures
Analytic:
learn step by step
cumulative sequential pattern building towards a concept
prefer quiet, well lit, formal design
have a strong need to complete the task they are working on
respond well to words and numbers
need visual re-enforcement
give directions, fact sheets, underline important sections
provide feedback on details—in sequence

14. Helpful Instructional Methods
Field Dependents:
Well-organized, well-structured materials
Pairing the field dependent student with the field independent student or teacher
Providing lots of positive and negative feedback
Limiting stress
Offering structural models for a given field
Beginning exercises with clear structure, abundant cues, consistent feedback; scaffolding as the student progresses
Asking learners to identify their own goals
Providing many examples and nonexamples
Field Independents:
Pairing the field independent with a field dependent student or teacher
Offering guidance, but not imposing structure
Allowing student-directed learning
Providing accessibility of supporting resources
Providing team building exercises and demonstrating the power of synergy.

15. Global/Analytic Teaching Strategies
Introducing the material: start the lesson with a story, an anecdote or humor that relates to the content. If possible, have it relate to the student's own experiences, or something that is realistic to them.
Discovery through group learning. Avoid telling too many facts. Students are to discover these in small groups. Some techniques may be Circle of knowledge, Team learning, brainstorming, case study, etc.
Written and tactual involvement: globals love to graph, map, illustrate, draw, role-play, create charts, invent games, make things, etc. Then watch them develop teaching skills when they have to teach to other students. This happens a lot with computers.
Analytic:
Explanations and visual reinforcement: analytics respond to key words and numbers.
Write these on the board as you go. Answer questions about details directly, and use printed visuals such as the board and overheads.
Directions: list all relevant information about assignments, work requirements, objectives and directions on paper, or have the students copy from the board. Don't tell them, show them.
Step by step: proceed step by step through the details that need to be absorbed in order to acquire skills. Put key words on the board, underline important sections or use highlighters, check homework daily, teach independent use of the library facilities, etc.
Testing and feedback. Provide instant feedback on tests and assignments (as soon as possible), and do what you say you will do! Analytics hold you to your word.

16. Nisbett’s Analytic and Holistic: Systems of Thought
Life is changing; to be is not to be, and not to be is to be
Models of the world are complex, interactional, and immune to contradiction.
Attention given more to the field
See wholes. More able to detect covariation (perception of relations within the field)
Analytic
Life is consistent; A must be A regardless of context.
Models of the world are simple and specific
Attention given more to the salient target object
See parts. Isolate and analyze an object while ignoring the field in which it is embedded.

17. Nisbett’s Analytic and Holistic: Explanation and Prediction
Cause/effect relationships are complex and difficult to predict/explain.
Explain events (social and physical) more with respect to the field
More like to make group dispositions
More prone to hindsight bias (regard events as having been inevitable in retrospect). Less surprise when “outcome” is found not to be true.
Analytic
Cause/effect relationships are linear and mechanical.
Explain events more with respect to a target object and its properties/personal dispositions
Less like to make group dispositions
More prone to attribution error (attribute behavior to dispositions of the person, and minimize the role of situations and contexts).

18. Nisbett’s Analytic and Holistic: Epistemological Assumptions
Truth and reality are relational.
Based on intuitive instantaneous understanding through direct perception. Knowledge is experience-based.
Concern for relationships among objects and events.
Analytic
Truth and reality are logical.
Based on logic and abstract principles.
Concern for inherent properties of the object of study, for categories and rules.