1. India Theme: Order Through Society
Lesson 20

2. Roots of Hinduism: The Vedas
The Vedas (“Wisdom”) were collections of prayers and hymns of the Indo-European Aryans who migrated into India around 1500 B.C.
Reflect the knowledge that priests needed to carry out their functions
The Aryans developed a social structure with sharp distinctions between individuals and groups according to the occupations and roles in society
These distinctions became the basis of the caste system
Brahmins (priests) were at the top of the caste system
Fanciful depiction of the Indo-Aryans entering India

3. Roots of Hinduism: The Vedas
The Vedas required ritual sacrifices by which the Aryans hoped to win favor of the gods
Gods required constant attention
Proper honor for the gods required households to have brahmins perform no less than five sacrifices per day
As time passed, many Aryans, to include the brahmins became dissatisfied with the sacrificial cults of the Vedas, viewing them as sterile rituals rather than genuine means of communicating with the gods
Sought something to satisfy their spiritual longings

4. Roots of Hinduism: The Dravidians
Beginning about 800 B.C., many individuals retreated into the forests of the Ganges Valley, lived as hermits, and contemplated on the relationships between human beings, the world, and the gods
They drew inspiration from the Dravidians who believed human souls took on new physical forms after the death of their bodily hosts
Transmigration and reincarnation: An individual soul could depart one body at death and become associated with another body through a new birth
Idyllic representation of the Dravidians before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans

5. Roots of Hinduism: The Upanishads
Aryan and Dravidian values began to blend
The Upanishads were Indian reflections and dialogues from around B.C. that reflected basic Hindu concepts
Upanishads means “a sitting in front of” and refers to the practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues

6. Roots of Hinduism: The Upanishads
Upanishads taught that appearances are deceiving, that individual human beings are not separate and autonomous creatures
Instead, each person participates in a larger cosmic order and forms a small part of a universal soul (Brahman)
The physical world is a theater of change instability, and illusion
The Brahman is an external, unchanging, permanent foundation of all things that exist– the only genuine reality

7. Roots of Hinduism: The Upanishads
Individuals souls were born into the physical world not once, but many times
Souls appear most often as humans, but sometimes as animals, plants, or other vegetable matter
The highest goal of the individual soul is to escape this cycle of birth and rebirth and enter into permanent union with Brahman

8. Roots of Hinduism: Teachings of the Upanishads
Samsara
Upon death, individual souls go temporarily to the World of the Fathers and then return in new incarnation
Karma
“Now as a man is like this or like that, according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be: a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad. He becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds.”
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad

9. Roots of Hinduism: Teachings of the Upanishads
Mosksha
The goal (escaping the cycle of rebirth)
A deep, dreamless sleep that came with permanent liberation from physical incarnation
Obtained by asceticism and meditation
Separation from the physical world to merge with Brahman
Shiva: The Lord of Yoga meditating on Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas

10. The Emergence of Popular Hinduism
Bhagavad Gita
Short poem finalized around 400 A.D. which represented the new Hindu ethical teaching that promised salvation to those who participated actively in the world and met their caste responsibilities
Contrast with the Upanishads that taught that individuals could escape the cycle of incarnation only through renunciation and detachment from the world

11. The Emergence of Popular Hinduism
Bhagavad Gita and other new teachings made life easier for the lay classes
Individuals should meet their responsibilities in a detached fashion without striving for reward or recognition
Perform your duties faithfully, concentrating on your actions alone, with no thought of the consequences

12. Four Principal Aims of Human Life
Dharma
Obedience to religious and moral laws
Artha
The pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity
Kama
The enjoyment of social, physical, and sexual pleasure
Moksha
The salvation of the soul
A proper balance of dharma, artha, and kama would help an individual attain moksha

13. Popularity Spreads
As devotional Hinduism evolved and became increasingly distinct from the Upanishads and the brahmins, its appeal spread across Indian society
Hinduism gradually displaced Buddhism as the most popular religion in India
Buddhist monks began to confine themselves to their monasteries rather than actively seeking to spread their message

14. Aryan Social Order
Aryan social hierarchy served to maintain order and stability that other societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China maintained through state and political structures
The term caste comes from the Portuguese word casta meaning a social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status
Coined by Portuguese merchants and mariners who visited India during the 16th Century

15. Caste and Varna
As the Aryans settled in India they interacted with more people to include the darker-skinned Dravidians
The Aryans began using the word varna meaning “color” to refer to the major social classes
This suggests that social distinctions arose partly from differences in skin color

16. Varnas
After about 1000 B.C., Aryans increasingly recognized four main varnas
Brahmins (priests)
Kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats)
Vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants)
Shudras (landless peasants and serfs)

17. Untouchables
Some centuries later, the Aryans added the category of untouchables
The untouchables performed dirty or unpleasant tasks such as butchering animals or handling dead bodies
Such work made them become so polluted that their very touch could defile individuals of higher status
Members of the untouchable class dispose of corpses after the 2004 tsunami

18. Subcastes (Jati)
Until about the 6th Century, the four varnas were sufficient to maintain the desired social distinctions, but increased urbanization and specialization demanded a more complex hierarchy
Jati emerged as subcastes
Largely determined by occupation
By the 18th and 19th Centuries there were several thousand jati
Even untouchables had jati and some looked down on others as more polluted and miserable than themselves

19. Castes and Subcastes
Prescribed an individual’s role in society in the minutest of detail
Members of the same jati ate together, intermarried, and cared for their own sick
Elaborate rules dictated how members of different jati addressed each other and communicated
Violation of the rules could result in expulsion from the larger group

20. Social Order
Individuals came to identify themselves more closely with their jati than with their cities or states
The caste system served as the principal foundation of social stability in India, doing what states and empires did to maintain public order elsewhere

21. Mobility
There were some provisions for movement between classes, but individual upward mobility was not easy
More often it occurred for a group as members of a jati improved their condition collectively
The caste system did enable foreign people to find a place in Indian society

22. Expansion of the Caste System
As more people migrated to India, especially Turks and Muslim merchants, the caste system continued to provide order
Immigrant groups gained recognition as distinct groups under the umbrella of the caste system
Established codes of conduct both within their group and in their interactions with others

23. Caste and Economic Development
Since jati was so closely tied to occupation they often took the form of workers’ guilds that were able to powerfully represent the group’s interests
Merchants and artisans established distinct jati based on their particular type of commerce or industry

24. Geographic Expansion
At first the caste system was confined to northern India where the Aryans had first entered
As commercial relationships pushed south, the caste system took hold there as well
By the 11th Century the caste system was the principal basis of social organization in southern India

25. Caste in India Today
The preamble of India's constitution forbids negative public discrimination on the basis of caste.
In reality, caste ranking and caste-based interaction continue
More prominent in the countryside than in urban settings and more in the realms of kinship and marriage than in less personal interactions
“The National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) is part of a wider struggle to abolish ‘untouchability’ and to ‘cast out caste’. ‘Untouchability’ and caste discrimination continue to be a brutal reality for more than 160 million Dalits living in India today, despite the fact that more than half a century has passed since India was born as a ‘democratic’ and independent state.”

26. How were populations controlled in India?

27. How were populations controlled in India?
Caste system
Maintains order by assigning an individual to a place in the social hierarchy and establishes a rigid code of behavior based on that assignment
Allows immigrant groups to find a place in society by recognizing them as distinct groups within the overall system

28. Next Lesson
Debate