1. Fallacies
Flaws in Reasoning

2. What are they?
Faulty reasoning is misleading and is either done by mistake or on purpose. Learning to recognize many different types of fallacies (and there are dozens) will help you refute fallacies and not get taken advantage of– and, hopefully, not commit them yourself!

3. Fallacies are everywhere!

4. Hasty Generalization
A generalization based on insufficient or unrepresented evidence (AKA: A stereotype)
Example: I dated a blonde once. He was completely flakey and really dense. All blondes must be unreliable and stupid!

5. Non Sequitur (Does Not Follow)
A conclusion that does not follow logically from preceding statements or that is based on irrelevant data.
Example: Mary loves children, so will make an excellent school teacher.

6. False Analogy
The assumption that because two things are alike in some respects, they are alike in others.
Example: If we put humans on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for the common cold.

7. “Either/Or”
The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more.
Examples: Either learn how to program a computer, or you won’t be able to get a decent job after college.
You’re either with us or you’re against us.

8. False Cause (Post Hoc)
The assumption that because one event follows another, the first is the cause of the second.
Example: Since Governor Gutierrez took office, unemployment for minorities in the state has decreased by seven percent. Governor Gutierrez should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities.

9. Red Herring
An argument that focuses on an irrelevant or completely different issue to detract attention from the real issue.
Example: Arguing that NFL players are disrespecting the military by kneeling during the national anthem when they are protesting racial violence in America distracts the conversation from the issue they are trying to highlight.

10. To the Person (Ad Hominem)
An attack on the person proposing an argument rather than on the argument itself.
Example: Senator Jones was a conscientious objector during the Vietnam War, so his proposal to limit military spending has no merit.

11. Bandwagon (Ad Populum)
A claim that an idea should be accepted because a large number of people favor it or believe it to be true.
Example: Everyone knows that Bud Light is the only real light beer.

12. Force and Fear (Ad Baculum)
A misuse of pathos, the ad baculum fallacy is committed whenever the proponent of an argument attempts to persuade the audience to accept the conclusion… by predicting (or causing) unpleasant consequences if it is not accepted.
Example: You must vote yes on the bill because it is the only way you will prove you are a true Conservative and get re- elected.

13. Non-Disproof
One sometimes encounters arguments that some claim should be accepted because they have never been disproven. The move from “not disproved” to “proven” is invalid.
No one has ever shown that it is impossible that the stars rule our lives; therefore, astrology is true.

14. Straw Man
A straw man is a common form of argument and is a common fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument which was not advanced by that opponent.
People—especially politicians—make up a “straw” argument that is easy to knock down.

16. Your turn!
Find an example of a logical fallacy from an ad or politics.
Describe why it is a fallacy.
Share it with the class.