1. Figurative Language

2. Metaphor
a figure of speech which makes a direct comparison of two unlike objects by identification or substitution.
Metaphors are composed of two parts:
The vehicle is the thing being named and replacing the subject or tenor
The tenor is the idea expressed by the metaphor
For example: in “All the world's a stage” (William Shakespeare, As You Like It)
Vehicle = stage
Tenor = world

3. Simile
a direct comparison of two unlike objects, often using like, than, or as.
The holy time is quiet as a nun
(William Wordsworth,
"On the Beach at Calais")
And like a thunderbolt he falls
(Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "The Eagle")

4. Conceit
an extended metaphor comparing two unlike objects with powerful effect. (It owes its roots to elaborate analogies in Petrarch and to the Metaphysical poets, particularly Donne.)
If they be two, they are two so
As stiff twin compasses are two;
Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show
To move, but doth, if th' other do.
(John Donne,
"Valediction Forbidding Mourning")

5. Personification
figure of speech in which objects and animals have human qualities.
Into the jaws of Death,
Into the mouth of Hell.
(Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "The Charge of the Light Brigade")

6. Apostrophe
addressing a person or personified object not present.
Little Lamb, who made thee?
(William Blake, "The Lamb")
O loss of sight, of thee I most complain!
(John Milton, "Samson Agonistes")

7. Anthropomorphism
Ascribing human forms, emotions, and characteristics to animals or inanimate objects
The Greek gods
Animal Farm
Cheshire Cat, Mickey Mouse, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Winnie the Pooh, etc.

8. Metonymy
the substitution of a word which relates to the object or person to be named, in place of the name itself
  the crown
Man of the cloth
 ”I think a man working outdoors feels more like a man if he can have a bottle of suds.”
--Shawshank Redemption

9. Synecdoche
figure of speech in which a part represents the whole object or idea.
Not a hair perished. [person]
(William Shakespeare, The Tempest )
And all mankind that haunted nigh
Had sought their household fire [homes]
(Thomas Hardy, "The Darkling Thrush")

10. gross exaggeration for effect; overstatement.
Hyperbole
gross exaggeration for effect; overstatement.
Love you ten years before the Flood,
(Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")

11. Litotes understatement for effect. But she is in her grave, and, oh,
But she is in her grave, and, oh,
The difference to me!
(William Wordsworth, "She Dwelt Among Untrodden Ways")
[Wordsworth deeply loved the woman, and therefore felt deep sorrow not hinted at in these casual lines.]

12. Irony
the contrast between actual meaning and the suggestion of another meaning.
The three most common categories of irony are:
Verbal irony
Situational irony
Dramatic irony

13. Verbal Irony
meaning one thing and saying another.
“It is a truth universally acknowledged , that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”
-- (Jane Austen, Pride and prejudice)

14. SARCASM VS. VERBAL IRONY
Sarcasm: A caustic and bitter expression of strong disapproval.
More personal, jeering, and intended to hurt
Example: “You will have a charming mother-in-law, indeed; and, of course, she will always be at Pemberley with you.” (Miss Bingley to Darcy upon learning of his admiration for Elizabeth)
Verbal Irony: The actual intent is expressed in words that carry the opposite meaning
Usually less harsh than sarcasm
Example: “There is a mixture of servility and self-importance in his letter which promises well. I am impatient to see him.” (Mr. Bennet after reading the letter from Mr. Collins)

15. Situational Irony
when the reality of a situation differs from the anticipated or intended effect; when something unexpected occurs.
What rough beast, its hour come round at last
Slouches toward Bethlehem to be born?
(William Butler Yeats, "The Second Coming")
[The second coming of Christ is intended, but a rough beast will come instead.]

16. Dramatic Irony
When the audience has information that a character(s) does not. It serves to heighten the audience’s level of engagement; it creates suspense.
“For whoso slew that king might have a mind To strike me too with his assassin hand.” -- Oedipus

17. Dramatic Irony

18. Cosmic Irony
A.k.a. irony of fate or incorrectly as karma, cosmic irony is a type of situational irony dealing with the perception that gods or fate toys with aspirations and deeds
The Titanic was toted as unsinkable
In 1982 the Reagan administration cut funding to metrification programs – in 1998 the Mars Climate Orbiter missed the orbit and burned up in the atmosphere, costing $193 million because of an English/metric error.

19. Symbolism
the use of one object to suggest another, hidden object or idea.
In Robert Frost's "The Road Not Taken," the fork in the road represents a major decision in life, each road a separate way of life.

20. Imagery
the use of words to represent things, actions, or ideas by sensory description.
He clasps the crag with crooked hands;
Close to the sun in lonely lands,
Ringed with the azure world, he stands.
The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls;
He watches from his mountain walls,
And like a thunderbolt he falls.
(Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "The Eagle")

21. Paradox
a statement which appears self-contradictory, but underlines a basis of truth.
Elected silence, sing to me.
(Gerard Manley Hopkins, "The Habit of Perfection")
Were her first years the Golden Age; that's true,
But now she's gold oft-tried and ever-new.
(John Donne, "The Autumnal")

22. Oxymoron
contradictory terms brought together to express a paradox for strong effect.
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
Dove-feathered raven! wolvish-ravening lamb!
(William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet )

23. Allusion a reference to an outside fact, event, or other source.
World-famous golden-thighed Pythagoras
Fingered upon a fiddle-stick or strings
What a star sang and careless Muses heard
(William Butler Yeats, "Among School Children"
[Pythagoras--Greek mathematician; Muses---mythological goddesses of beauty and music]

24. Characterization

25. Direct vs. indirect characterization
Explicit presentation by the author of the character through direct exposition, either in an introductory block or piecemeal throughout the work.
The presentation of the character in action, with little or no explicit comment by the author, in the expectation that the reader can deduce the attributes of the actor from the actions.

26. Which is indirect characterization?
Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character.
“People who suffer as much as I do from nervous complaints can have no great inclination for talking. Nobody can tell what I suffer! But it is always so. Those who do not complain are never pitied!" (Spoken by Mrs. Bennet)

27. Round vs. flat characters
Round Characters
Flat Characters
Also called three-dimensional characters
Multifaceted, human being
Capable of inconsistencies
Subject to growth
Example: Elizabeth
Also called two-dimensional characters
More a type than a human being
Usually not subject to growth
Example: Jane

28. Caricature
Writing that exaggerates certain individual qualities of a person and produces a ridiculous effect.

29. Dynamic vs. static characters
Dynamic Character
Changes little if at all
Things happen to a character without things happening within.
Modified by the actions and experiences
One objective of the work is to reveal the consequences of these actions

30. Foil
Literally a leaf of bright metal placed under a jewel to increase its brilliance
In literature, the term is applied to any person who through contrast underscores the distinctive characteristics of another.

31. Focalization
The perspective through which a narrative is presented. By presenting the narrative through the eyes and words of various characters, the narrator is less removed from the story and the reader is more intimate with the characters (more in their heads). Austen does this in a variety of ways such as epistles and indirect speech, in which the language and thoughts of the characters mix with the voice of the narrator.

32. Example:
“Mrs John Dashwood did not at all approve of what her husband intended to do for his sisters. To take three thousand pounds from the fortune of their dear little boy, would be impoverishing him to the most dreadful degree. She begged him to think again on the subject. How could he answer it to himself to rob his child, and his only child too, of so large a sum?”