1. National Academy of Neuropsychology
Reduced Cognitive Decline is Associated with Forgiveness
in a National Sample of United States Adults
Emily Green, Kelly Kennedy, Stephanie Travers, Ph.D., Loren Toussaint, Ph.D.
Introduction
Previous studies have shown that affective states, both positive and negative, are known correlates of cognitive impairment in aging. For example, higher levels of hostility are associated with lower cognitive scores (Barnes, 2009) and happiness is associated with improved cognitive function (Subramaniam & Vinogradov, 2013).
Research has also shown that forgiveness can act as a buffer against stress and other negative emotions (Toussaint, Worthington, & Williams, 2015). However, no studies have investigated the direct or moderating effects of forgiveness on the association between affective states and cognitive impairment. The current study examined direct and moderating effects of forgiveness of self and others as it is related to changes in cognitive impairment across nine years in a representative sample of United States adults.
Hypotheses
Forgiveness will be inversely and hostility will be positively associated with cognitive impairment across time.
Forgiveness will moderate the association of hostility with cognitive impairment across time. Individuals with higher forgiveness will be “protected” from the effects of hostility on cognitive decline.
Method
The present study utilized data from the Americans' Changing Lives Survey (ACL; House, 1986). The ACL is a longitudinal, population-based survey of United States adults (N = 1427) who were randomly selected as part of a multi-stage probability sample and interviewed five times across a span of almost 25 years. The current analyses examine data from 2002 (Wave 4) and 2011 (Wave 5). Forgiveness of self and others as well as cynical hostility was measured at Wave 4 and cognitive impairment was assessed at Waves 4 and 5. Socio-demographic controls included: age, biological sex, race/ethnicity, education, and income.
(see Table 1.)
Results
On average, levels of cognitive impairment increased over the 9-year time span (t(1093) = 8.24, p < .001, d = .24). Hierarchical linear regression modeling revealed that self-forgiveness was inversely and prospectively related to changes in cognitive impairment over the nine-year period. (B = -.06, 95% CI = ). Self-forgiveness moderated the relationship between hostility and changes in cognitive decline over time (B = -.07, 95% CI = ) (see Figure 1). Forgiveness of others was not related in any way to cognitive decline across time.
Conclusion
Average cognitive impairment increased over the span of nine years. Self-forgiveness was related to slower decline in cognitive impairment over a nine-year time span and moderated the association between hostility and cognitive decline. Participants with low or average levels of self-forgiveness showed statistically significant, positive associations between hostility and cognitive impairment, whereas those with high self-forgiveness showed no significant correlation. Forgiveness of others did not associate with cognitive decline in any way.
Why might self-forgiveness relate to reduced cognitive decline and buffer against the effects of hostility? Two explanations may be worth exploring. First, self-forgiveness appears to be an effective stress-buffer. Second, cynical and distrusting individuals may experience more shame and guilt as a result of acknowledging their negative thoughts toward others, and self-forgiveness may buffer possible self-condemnation.
References
Barnes, L. et al. (2009). Hostility and Change in Cognitive Function Over Time in Older Blacks and Whites. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71(6),
House, James S. Americans’ Changing Lives. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.
Subramaniam, K., & Vinogradov, S. (2013). Improving the neural mechanisms of cognition through the pursuit of happiness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7,
Toussaint, L. L., Worthington, E. L. Jr., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Forgiveness and Health: Scientific Evidence and Theories Relating Forgiveness to Better Health. Springer Publishers: New York.
Figure 1
Table 1
Variable
%/Mean/Median
Age (W4, 2002)
55.4 (Mdn. = 53)
Female
54%
Black
10%
Hispanic 6%
White
80%
Other 4%
Years Education 13
Income (1986 $)
46,000 (Mdn. = 34,000)
Measures
Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE)
11 Items
e.g., What is the (year) (season) (date) (day) (month)?
Forgiveness
3 Items
e.g., I often feel that no matter what I do now I will never make up for the mistakes I have made in the past.
Hostility
4 Items
e.g., I think most people would lie to get ahead.
National Academy of Neuropsychology
Seattle, WA
October 20, 2016
-breakdown female, avg. age (have median available for us- 53)
-Should we add the authors to the measurements section in the middle?
-Considering changing the colors of the graph lines in accordance with background color
Meta analysis regarding affective states and impairment