1. Marine environmental awareness course
Other emissions to air (SOx, NOx, PM)
Name – Date

2. Other emissions to air (SOx, NOx, PM)
Contents
Introduction
Main problem areas
Acidification
Air quality
Role of shipping 2
Photo credits: North Sea Foundation

3. 1. Problems and pollutants
Substance
CO2
SOx
NOx PM
Halons and (H)CFC’s
VOC’s
Climate Change
This lecture focuses on effects of engine emissions
Air quality (smog - health problems)
Acidification
Climate change
Air quality (smog - health problems) Acidification Climate change
Air quality (health problems)
Depletion of ozone layer
Air quality (potentially carcinogenic)
Photo credits: Job Orbiso 3

4. This lecture focuses on effects of NOx, SOx, PM and associated problems:
Air quality
Acidification
Credits: Air Pollution and Climate Secretariat/NOAA’s National Weather Service Collection John Neander/ProSea

5. SOx emissions are directly related to the sulphur content of fuel
Illustration credits: Air Pollution and Climate Secretariat 5

6. NOx emissions depend on conditions inside the engine
examples: NO, NO2, ...
Engine emissions: nitrogen (N2) in air reacts with oxygen (O2) in air
level of NOx emissions depend on conditions inside engine (eg temperature, air:fuel ratios)
‘NOx paradox’
Lower temperatures = lower NOx emissions (but less efficient combustion, so more CO2!) 6

7. Particulate Matter (PM) also formed in ship engines
Very small particles: PM10–PM2,5
Mixture of sulphates, ash, unburnt fuel
60-70% of PM emissions is directly related to bunker fuel quality (Wartsila)
Illustration credits: California Environmental Protection Agency

8. 2. Main impacts - acidification
NOx, SO2 in the air react with water and form acids
Results in lower pH (= higher acidity) in the environment
Often called acid rain (but also dry deposition)
NOx, SO2 (and NH3 from agriculture) in the air are deposited on land via rain, snow, hail and by dry deposition
Na reactie met H2O Nox en Sox vormen zuren
Illustration credits: Air Pollution and Climate Secretariat/Science – How Stuff works

9. Consequences of acidification
soil loses nutrients (e.g. calcium):
damage to trees / plants
soil releases heavy metals:
toxic to fish / insects (surface water)
toxic to humans (ground water)
surface waters: over-fertilization
buildings: damaged by corrosion
A prominent environmental issue in the 80’s (in Europe)
Currently less problematic
- Not completely solved
Adding of calcium carbonates increases the Ph
Photo credits: ProSea

10. Main impacts – air quality
NOx, SOx, VOC and PM emissions contribute to formation of smog
main component is ozone (O3)
Ozone at ground-level: toxic to humans
Consequences:
irritates lungs and eyes
chest tightness
leaf damage (plants and trees)
lower crop yields
- O3 in stratosphere is a ‘lifeline’ - O3 in troposphere is ‘bad news’ (highly toxic)!
Zomersmog - Nox en VOCs dit geeft tropospherische ozon
Wintersmog - SO2 en PM
Mn problemen bij mensen die al problemen hebben. Astma etc. Oude mensen, kinderen die veel buiten spelen
Photo credits: NOAA’s National Weather Service Collection John Neander/ EPA

11. Main impacts – air quality (PM)
PM10 and smaller:
undetected by our lungs
remain in respiratory system
pass into blood stream
Health effects include:
premature deaths
heart and lung failures
asthma
(chronic) bronchitis
cancer (possibly)
725,000 years lost in the EU alone

12. 3. Role of shipping
Acidification and air quality are problems at regional scale. Shipping also contributes!
Als je als scheepvaart alleen midden op de oceaan zou zitten, zou je geen invloed hebben op regionale luchtproblemen zoals zure regen, smog en PM. Maar meeste scheepvaart dichtbij land!
NB - voor CO2 maakt het niet uit waar je vaart! Geen regionaal maar een globaal probleem.
because 70% of shipping activities are within 400 km distance from coast
Photo credits: National Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, Santa Barbara 12

13. Contribution of SOx, NOx by shipping expected to grow
Shipping emissions are expected exceed all EU land emissions by 2025
Business as usual scenario!
SO2
NOx
EU27 = land-based sources in all EU countries (incl. domestic shipping)
Sea = international shipping in European sea areas
…as land emissions decrease: relative contribution of shipping increases!
Illustration credits:Air Pollution and Climate Secretariat

14. Worldwide, total sulphur emissions are increasing
fastest close to main shipping lanes
Journal of Geophysical Research
Illustration credits: Journal of Geophysical Research

15. Contribution of SOx, NOx, and PM
by shipping
In some ports (e.g. Long Beach California), shipping already is a major (36% for NOx) if not the biggest source (70 % of SOx)
Cruise ships sailing in Californian waters produce 10 tons of NOx and PM per day
A cruise ship in port for one day = 12,400 cars (PM and NOx)
Quote van California: California Cruise ship task force

16. Mortality attributable to ship PM emissions worldwide
- 60,000 = University of Delaware and Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) scientists estimate
impacts concentrated in coastal regions along major trade routes.
from Environ. Sci. Technol.; (Article) 2007; ASAP Article; DOI: /es071686z. Copyright 2007 American Chemical Society.
Reprinted with permission from James J. Corbett et all Environ. Sci. Technol.  Copyright © 2007 American Chemical Society 16

17. SOx regulations for ships
Annex VI from MARPOL:
Global sulphur cap for HFO = 4,5% in fuel (45,000 ppm)
(Fuel now contains 2,7% suphur! on average)
Limit in Sulphur Emission Control Areas = 1,0%
In the future:
2018 – feasibility study (oil companies)
Date
Global Sulphur Cap
ECA’s
March 1, 2010
1,0%
January 1, 2012
3,5%
January 1, 2015
0,10%
January 1, 2020
0,5%
Very quick decision making in IMO
Nu meeste HFO - 2,7%
Sulfur emission control areas – bv Noordzee
feasibility study (oil companies) - if in future, S cap is 0,5% than using HFO is no longer an option. This means that the refinery process should change, leading to different kinds of fuels. This of course costs money - oil companies have to explore this possibility. 17

18. NOx regulations for ships
Annex VI from MARPOL
Maximum 17 g/kW
Emission standards related to revolutions per minute (rpm)
Tighter nitrogen oxide emission standards for new engines
Only for new ships!
Tier III only in NECAs
17 gram per KW van je motor (kW is vermogen van je motor, was vroeger PK)
Bij nieuwe motoren wordt de limit verlaagd (3 fasen – Tiers)
Hogere toerentallen – Nox emissions gaan omlaag, want fuel spends less time in combustion area, so there’s less time of O2 to react with N2, so less Nox is formed. Characteristic of a motor. 18

19. PM regulations for ships
No specific regulations Annex VI
Lower sulphur content in fuel and emissions will cut PM emissions significantly
VOCs zitten in olie – verdampen omdat je lading hebt
Nog niks voor geregeld. Komt er voorlopig nog niet aan. 19

20. Reducing SOx, NOx and PM emissions (solutions)
Shore side power (Sweden and California)
Photo credits: Port of Gothenburg

21. Reducing SOx and PM emissions (solutions)
1) Fuels with lower sulphur content
Distillate fuels (MDO): 90% less SOx, 70 % less PM
Alternative fuels (LNG, biofuels, ...)
2) After treatment of emissions: sea water scrubbers
>95% SOx reduction
Downside: highly acidic waste produced by scrubber
Downside sea water scrubber - je wast Sox, roet, etc eruit. Dat moet je opvangen want is heel zuur. Speciale tanks voor nodig + HOIs
Other downside = veel ruimtebeslag op schip

22. Reducing NOx emissions (solutions)
1) Engine based measures
Dry low NOx technologies (such as Miller timing)  lower T (but, CO2 emissions increase)
Wet low NOx technologies (adding water)
Exhaust gas recirculation
2) After treatment: Selective Catalytic Reactor (SCR)
Needed for Tier III! (90% reduction of NOx)
Uses urea or ammonium (NH3  N2 and H2O)
Risk: NH3 slip
Exhaust gas recirculation
High pressure fuel injection
Gevaar van SCR = NH3 slip - uitgifte van pure ammonia wanneer je teveel NH3 in de SCR injecteerd (onvolledige omzetting van NH3)
Photo credits: Job Orbiso

23. Questions?