1. Homosexuality

2. Recap
A corporation is a company that [1] is owned by its shareholders, [2] is run by managers and/or a board of directors, and [3] has similar rights and duties as those of a person.
A basic assumption of business ethics is that we can apply moral theories and principles to evaluate the actions and decisions of corporations. 2

3. Recap
Milton Friedman claimed that the main purpose or responsibility of a corporation is to maximize profit. His view soon became the basis of the shareholder model of business.
An alternative theory, the stakeholder model of business, proposes that a corporation should also consider the interests of its stakeholders. 3

4. Recap
The stakeholders of a corporation are those individuals and groups whose interests and well-being can be affected by the corporation’s actions and decisions. They include not only its shareholders and managers but also its employees, customers, suppliers, local communities, the government, and the environment. 4

5. Recap
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be seen as a corporation’s commitment to conduct business in a socially responsible manner, i.e. to work together with its various stakeholders to produce a positive impact on society. 5

6. Recap
A socially responsible corporation should try its best to avoid causing harm to its employees, customers, society and the environment.
If a corporation’s actions have brought negative consequences for others, it has a legal and moral duty to compensate the victims and fix the problems it has caused. 6

7. In this lecture… Sexual orientation (性取向) Is homosexuality immoral?
Discrimination (歧視)
Same-sex marriage (同性婚姻) 7

8. Sexual orientation
Is homosexuality a crime? Or is it a kind of mental disorder (精神病)? Is sexual orientation (性取向) inborn (天生的) or chosen?

9. Sexual orientation
In the past, homosexuality was seen as a mental disorder (精神病) by mental health professionals.
By 1973, however, homosexuality was no longer classified as a form of mental illness by the American Psychiatric Association (美國精神病學會).

10. Sexual orientation
In 1974, the American Bar Association (美國大律師公會) approved of the decriminalization (非刑事化) of same-sex sexual relations between consensual (彼此同意的) adults.
The World Health Organization (WHO) eliminated (剔除) homosexuality as a mental illness in 1981.

11. Sexual orientation
In China, although public attitude has grown more accepting of homosexuality in recent years, homosexuality is still widely considered as an illness by the medical profession.
Homosexuals are often pressured by their family members to seek therapy (治療) or medical treatment.

12. Sexual orientation
Because Chinese traditions put great emphasis on having children to continue the family bloodline, many gay people keep their sexual orientation a secret so that they can marry and have children.

13. Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation (性取向) covers sexual desires, feelings, practices and identification (身分認同).
Sexual orientation can be towards people of the same or different sexes. Accordingly, people can be classified as homosexual (同性戀的), heterosexual (異性戀的) or bisexual (雙性戀的).

14. Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation is different from sexual behavior because it refers to feelings and self-concept. Persons may or may not express their sexual orientation in their behaviors.
Persons with a homosexual orientation are sometimes referred to as ‘gay’ (both men and women) or as ‘lesbian’ (women only).

15. Sexual orientation
According to an article published in Scientific American Mind, while most people believe that ‘straight’ (i.e. heterosexual) and ‘gay’ (homosexual) are discrete categories (截然不同的類別), there is strong evidence that they are not.

16. Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation falls along a continuum (連續): some people are only attracted to members of the opposite sex; others, to the same sex; and many are somewhere in the middle.

17. Sexual orientation
For evolutionary reasons (進化原因), most people are strongly inclined to (傾向) prefer opposite-sex partners, because such relationships produce children.
However, a few – between 3 and 7 percent of the population – are exclusively attracted to members of the same sex, and many others are in the middle.

18. Sexual orientation
Social pressure (社會壓力) can push those in the middle towards heterosexuality (異性關係).
However, because genes (基因) have a strong influence on a person’s sexual orientation, people with strong same-sex attractions probably cannot change their orientation.

19. Is homosexuality immoral?
Some religious organizations claim that gay men and lesbians are sinners (罪人) or that they make sinful (罪惡的) choices. Does it mean that homosexuality is immoral?

20. Is homosexuality immoral?
Some people think that homosexuality is immoral because it is ‘against nature’ (違反自然).
Consider the following argument:
Homosexual sex is unnatural. [P1]
Any unnatural act is morally wrong. [P2]
Therefore, homosexual sex is morally wrong. [C]

21. Is homosexuality immoral?
Is this argument sound?
No. Premise 2 [P2] is obviously false. For example, taking antibiotics (抗生素) to cure an illness, driving cars, talking on mobile phones, etc. all seem to be ‘unnatural’ in some sense, and yet no one would consider any of these actions as immoral.

22. Is homosexuality immoral?
A modified version of the argument claims that something is moral only if it fulfills some function in nature.
Homosexuality is unnatural and immoral because it does not fulfill the natural function of one’s genitals (生殖器), which is to produce babies.

23. Is homosexuality immoral?
The structure (結構) of the argument, in its modified form, is as follows :
Homosexual sex uses something (e.g. the male sex organ 男性生殖器) in some way other than its natural function. [P1]
Any act which uses something in a way other than its natural function is immoral. [P2]
Thus, homosexual sex is immoral. [C]

24. Is homosexuality immoral?
The biggest problem with this argument is that some human body parts can have multiple functions.
For example, if walking is the natural function of our legs and feet, does it mean that it is unnatural and immoral to use them to play football?

25. Is homosexuality immoral?
An action may be seen as morally impermissible (道德上不容許的) because of the harm it causes to others. It can be argued, for example, that promiscuous (濫交的) unprotected sex is wrong because it causes sexually transmitted diseases (性病) to spread.

26. Is homosexuality immoral?
However, an argument against promiscuous unprotected sex is not the same as an argument against homosexual sex.
Homosexuality does not imply promiscuity (濫交). Under most circumstances, protected gay sex between two consenting (彼此同意的) adults does not harm anyone.

27. Is homosexuality immoral?
There is no evidence that homosexuality has harmful effects on society. For example, statistics does not show an increase in crime in countries where homosexuality has been decriminalized (非刑事化).

28. Discrimination
What is discrimination (歧視)? Is it morally justified to discriminate against homosexuals because of their sexual orientation?

29. Discrimination
Discrimination is the unfavorable or unfair treatment (不利的或不公平的待遇), whether intentional (有意的) or unintentional (無意的), of individuals or groups on the basis of characteristics such as race (skin color), gender (sex), religion, or sexual orientation.

30. Discrimination
Universal human rights (普世人權) are rights held equally by all human beings. For example, each and every person has a right to life, a right to privacy, a right to freedom of expression, etc. no matter that person’s race, sex, religion, or sexual orientation.

31. Discrimination
Freedom from discrimination (免於被歧視) is one of the universal human rights listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (世界人權宣言).
One person’s right is another person’s duty. If everyone has a right to be free from discrimination, we all have a duty not to discriminate against others.

32. Discrimination
Treating a person in an unfavorable way simply because of that person’s race, sex, religion or sexual orientation is not morally justified.
For example, it is unfair when a woman is not allowed to get a driver’s license simply because she is female.

33. Discrimination
Gay men and lesbians are often targets of discrimination and human rights abuse in many countries of the world.
They are discriminated against in the labor market, in schools, mistreated (受虐待) and disowned (被捨棄) by their own families, and often singled out for physical attack (襲擊).

34. Discrimination
Millions of people across the globe face execution (處決), imprisonment (監禁), torture (虐待), violence (暴力) and discrimination because of their sexual orientation.
Same-sex relationships are currently illegal in 76 countries and punishable by death in seven.

35. Discrimination
In some Islamic nations (伊斯蘭教國家), such as Afghanistan (阿富汗), Iran (伊朗), Iraq (伊拉克), Saudi Arabia (沙特阿拉伯), and Yemen (也門), sodomy (肛交) is a crime for which the maximum penalty is death. In Nigeria (尼日利亞), Africa’s most populous country, homosexuality is punishable by death or imprisonment. 35

36. Discrimination
Laws that criminalize homosexuality violate an individual’s right to be free from discrimination. Laws that impose the death penalty for sexual conduct violate people’s right to life.
Besides, criminalization also leads to violation of other basic human rights, such as freedom of expression and freedom of association.

37. Discrimination
According to the harm principle, only those actions and practices that cause harm to others should be regulated, prohibited or punished.
Because homosexual relationships are not harmful to anyone, criminalization of homosexuality cannot be morally justified.

38. Same-sex marriage
What is the meaning and purpose of marriage? Do you think that the term ‘marriage’ should only be used to describe the union between one man and one woman?

39. Same-sex marriage
The most debated moral issue related to homosexuality is same-sex marriage (同性婚姻).
In recent years, the Netherlands (荷蘭), Belgium (比利時), Canada, and Spain have recognized marriages between people of the same sex due to strong public support.

40. Same-sex marriage
On 25 June, 2015, the Supreme Court of the United States legalized gay marriage in all 50 states. The court’s decision set off celebrations across the country as gay couples (情侶) rushed to get marriage licenses.

41. Same-sex marriage
Homosexuality has been decriminalized in Hong Kong and public opinion shows increased awareness (意識) about and tolerance (包容) for gay and lesbian people.
However, relationships between same-sex couples are still not recognized by the law.

42. Same-sex marriage
Recent polls (民意調查) reveal that there is still strong public opposition to same-sex marriage in Hong Kong.
The strongest opponents of same-sex marriage are older people, people with religion, and people holding conservative (保守的) political views.

43. Same-sex marriage
What are the main arguments against same-sex marriage? Are these arguments sound?

44. Same-sex marriage
Argument No.1: Marriage has traditionally been an institution (制度) between one man and one woman in Western culture and most other human societies. Marriage, as the union of a man and a woman, cannot be extended to same-sex couples.

45. Same-sex marriage
Counterargument: Many ‘traditions’ need reconsideration (再思考) in changing times. The practice of slavery (奴隸制度) dates to the earliest history of human society. The fact that slavery had always been around did not prevent a change in viewpoint. Eventually, slavery was outlawed (被禁止) in the United States and internationally, by act of the United Nations.

46. Same-sex marriage
Argument No.2: Same-sex marriage poses a threat (構成威脅) to traditional family. Homosexuality damages family values and leads to the breakdown of the family.

47. Same-sex marriage
Counterargument: There is no evidence that legalization of same-sex marriage – in European countries, for example – has had any effect at all on opposite-sex marriage and divorce rates (離婚率).

48. Same-sex marriage
Argument No.3: People should be allowed to marry only insofar as the marriage can be linked with procreation (生育), childbirth, and child rearing (撫養). Same-sex marriage cannot conceive children. Why should they be allowed to marry?

49. Same-sex marriage
Counterargument: If there is a necessary link between marriage and procreation, why should post-menopausal (己經過了更年期的) women be allowed to marry? If elderly (年長的), sterile (沒有生育能力的), or impotent (性無能的) couples cannot be denied (被剝奪) the right to marry, neither can such a right be denied to gay or lesbian couples.

50. Same-sex marriage
Argument No.4: A family with one man and one woman is the best environment in which to raise children. Only the traditional form of marriage can provide the most stable and nurturing (良好培育的) home for children.

51. Same-sex marriage
Counterargument: Research (研究) comparing outcomes (結果) for children with gay and lesbian parents with outcomes for children with heterosexual parents has shown that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable (有能力的) as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically (心理上) healthy and well-adjusted (適應良好的) as children reared by heterosexual parents.

52. Same-sex marriage
What are the arguments for legal recognition of same-sex marriage?

53. Same-sex marriage
Many gay men and lesbians have always wanted their relationships to be granted the legitimacy (合法性) and acceptance that legal marriage offers.
Marriage, in their view, should be about love and commitment (承擔) between two people, no matter their sex or sexual orientation.

54. Same-sex marriage
Same-sex couples want to get married for exactly the same reasons as opposite-sex couples want to get married – they want the benefits of a lasting, loving relationship.
For example, marriage helps stabilize (穩定) relationships between couples and makes them feel more secure (安全), both financially (財政上) and emotionally (情緒上).

55. Same-sex marriage
Marriage is not necessarily about having children. For many people, intimacy (親密關係), commitment (承擔) and recognition (認許) are much more important.
Once marriage and procreation have been separated, there is no reason to deny the social, legal and spiritual (精神上的) benefits of marriage to same-sex couples.

56. Same-sex marriage
A utilitarian reason for supporting same-sex marriage is that many gay people have children from previous marriages to people of the opposite sex, and many have adopted (領養) children.
It would be much easier for them to rear children in partnership with another person than to rear them as single parents.

57. Same-sex marriage
There are thousands upon thousands of orphans (孤兒) and abandoned (被遺棄的) children looking for a loving home.
If same-sex marriage is legalized and gay couples are given the right to adopt, a greater number of these children will have the opportunity to have a real family.

58. Same-sex marriage
Denying gay people the right to marriage and family because of their sexual orientation is a form of discrimination and human rights violation (違反人權).
Society must treat all its members with equal respect. That is why all forms of discrimination against homosexuality are morally unacceptable.