1. Introduction Results Hypotheses Discussion Method
Parental Psychological and Behavioral Control as Predictors of Late Adolescent Peer and Romantic Relationships
Jessica Kansky1, David E. Szwedo2, Emily A. Smith2, & Joseph P. Allen1 University of Virginia1 & James Madison University2
We would like to thank the National Institute of Child Health & Human Development for funding awarded to Joseph P. Allen, Principal Investigator,
(R01 HD & R01-MH58066) for funding to conduct this study as well as for the write-up of this study.
Table 1. Univariate statistics and intercorrelations between primary constructs
Measures
Childhood Report of Parenting Behavior (Age 13) Teens evaluated their perceptions of psychological control vs. autonomy as well as firm versus lax behavioral control from their mothers. Items were scored on a three-point scale, where higher scores indicate greater psychological and firm behavioral control and lower scores indicate greater autonomy promoting behavior and lax behavioral control, respectively.
Adolescent Problem Inventory (Ages 13 & 18) Social competence was assessed through teen’s responses to social problem solving scenarios. Higher scores indicate a greater likelihood that teens believed they could make a competent response to a given social situation.
Autonomy & Relatedness Behaviors (Ages 13 & 18 for teens and best friends; 18 and 21 for teens and romantic partners) Autonomy and relatedness behaviors were assessed during a 6-minute observed revealed-differences interaction task with teens and their best friends or teens and their romantic partners. Teens’ and friends’/partners’ behavior were coded for autonomy (e.g. giving reasoned arguments for their position) and relatedness (e.g. demonstrations of caring/warmth).
Friendship Quality Questionnaire (Ages 13 & 18) Teen’s perceptions of companionship and conflict resolution were assessed with a self-report questionnaire of friendship quality. Items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher scores indicate greater companionship and better conflict resolution.
Introduction
Psychological control refers to parental behaviors that are intrusive and manipulative of children’s thoughts, feelings, and attachments to parents. These behaviors are linked to poor parent-child boundaries, poor independent sense of self and identity, and are predictive of psychological and social maladaptation (Barber, 2002).
Contrary to psychologically-controlling parenting, authoritative parenting promotes autonomy and free-will with reasoning and guidance towards future conduct (Baumrind, 1966).
Parental firm behavioral control, a key characteristic of authoritative parenting, has been linked to healthier social, emotional, and academic outcomes for adolescents (Bean, 2003; Steinberg et al., 1994).
Autonomous parent-child relationships have been linked to positive concurrent and future interpersonal skills (Allen et al., 2002).
Harnessing supportive relationships and strong social competence are critical to developing a healthy self-concept and successful conflict resolution skills, which may in turn influence social functioning.
This study seeks to examine the effects of parental firm vs. lax behavioral control and psychological control vs. autonomy promoting behaviors on adolescents’ social competence and relationship quality.
Figure 1. Heuristic representation of regression models predicting later social outcomes from earlier psychological control and firm control from parents.
Results
Hypotheses
Correlations between primary variables are presented in Table 1. Correlations suggested numerous negative associations between psychological control and social competence, friendship quality, and autonomy and relatedness behaviors. Firm behavioral control was only correlated with less positive autonomy and relatedness from teens toward their romantic partners.
Multiple regression analyses were conducted controlling for gender, family income, and baseline measures of the interpersonal outcome variables to assess relative change in social functioning over time.
Analyses suggested that parental firm behavioral control did not significantly predict relative change in any of the social outcomes of interest.
However, greater parental psychological control predicted relative decreases in overall social competence, companionship, and conflict resolution (Figure 1). In addition, greater psychological control predicted decreases in positive autonomy and relatedness to and from peers and from romantic partners.
Interactions between psychological control and firm behavioral control to predict study outcomes were also assessed. There were no significant interactions between psychological control and firm behavioral control.
Greater psychological control exercised by parents will predict a relative decrease in social competence, friendship quality, and autonomy and relatedness in friendships and romantic relationships.
Greater firm behavioral control exercised by parents will predict a relative decrease in social competence, friendship quality, and autonomy and relatedness in friendships and romantic relationships.
Psychological control and firm behavioral control will interact such that individuals’ whose parents display both greater levels of psychological control and firm behavioral control will have the most negative social outcomes.
Note. Coefficients are standardized betas. Gender and income were controlled for.
*p < .05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Discussion
Taken together, firm parental behavioral control at age 13 was not a significant predictor of later social functioning. However, psychological control was an important negative predictor of general social competence, friendship quality, and romantic relationship quality over time.
Perhaps teens endorsing higher parental psychological control develop poor internal working models of critical close relationships and poor sense of identity and self-esteem, resulting in deteriorating interpersonal functioning over time.
Interestingly, teens may not only exhibit less positive behavior in their close relationships, but may also select friends and partners who exhibit similarly low levels of positivity as well.
Results highlight the particularly damaging effects of psychologically controlling behavior.
Method
Participants: N=184
Assessed at age 13 with follow-up data at age 18 and 21
Gender: 86 males, 98 females
Race/ethnicity: 63% Caucasian, 27% African American, 14% mixed race or other race/ethnicities
Baseline median family income: $40,000-$59,000
For more information please contact Jessica Kansky or visit