1. Lipids &Fatty Acids Metaboilsm
Asist prof. Dr. Alaa Kamal Jabbar Alhamd
M Sc. & Ph. D. In Clinical Biochemistry
Ph D. Course-Biology
Department of Chemistry
College of Sciences\ University of Almustansirya
1. 1..Lehninger Principle of Biochemistry , David Nelson , 4th
Edition (2008).
2. Biochemistry , Lubbert Steryer,6th edition (2006).
3. Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry , Robbert Murray, 26th
edition (2003).
4. The Chemical basis of Life , George Schimd , 2th edition
(1985).

2. Lipid Metabolism
Fatty Acid Metabolism

3. Introduction Fatty acids play several important roles:
Building blocks for phospholipids and glycolipids
Target proteins to membranes
High energy source of fuel
Fatty acid derivatives are used as hormones and intracellular messengers

4. Introduction Overview of fatty acid synthesis
- The two processes nearly mirror one another.

5. Triglycerides Triglycerides are a highly concentrated store of energy
9 kcal/g vs 4 kcal/g for glycogen
Glycogen is also highly hydrated, 2 g H2O/g glycogen
- In mammals, the fats accumulate in adipose cells (fat cells)
- Examples given of migratory birds
• golden plover flies from Alaska to South America, 2400 miles of it over the ocean.
• ruby-throated Hummingbird can fly across the Gulf of Mexico

6. Pancreatic Lipases
Dietary triacylglycerols must be broken down before being absorbed by the intestines.
Bile salts, which act as detergents, are used to solublize the triacylglycerols
- The bile salts make micelles.
- The bile salts are derived from cholesterol by the liver and secreated from the gall bladder.
- Triacylglycerols are incorporated into the micelles with their ester bonds pointing toward surface of the micelle where the esters are hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases

7. Utilization of Fatty Acids as Fuel
Three stages of processing
Triglycerols are degraded to fatty acids and glycerol in the adipose tissue and transported to other tissues.
Fatty acids are activated and transported into the mitochondria.
Fatty acids are broken down into two-carbon acetyl– CoA units and fed into the citric acid cycle.

8. Degrdation of Triacylglycerols
In the adipose tissue, lipases are activated by hormone signaled phosphorylation
- Hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, glucagon, and adrenocorticorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

9. The lipases break the triacylglycerols down to fatty acids and glycerol
The fatty acids are transportred in the blood by serum albumin

10. The glycerol is absorbed by the liver and converted to glycolytic intermediates.
- In this way, fats can be used as a source of material for glucose synthesis.
- The reverse reaction is how glycerol is produced for the synthesis of fats.

11. Activation of Fatty Acids
Acyl CoA synthetase reaction occurs in the on the mitochondrial membrane
- These reactions occur near equilibrium. What drives the reaction is the subsequent hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate.
• We saw this before with the activation of glucose for glycogen synthesis.

12. Transport into Mitochondrial Matrix
Cantina carries long-chain activated fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix

13. Transport into Mitochondrial Matrix
Carnitine carries long-chain activated fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix

14. Fatty acid oxidation
Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
1. oxidation to
trans-∆2-Enoly-CoA
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.
- Like succinyl dehydrogenase, this reaction uses FAD and is linked to Complex 2 of the electron transport chain.

15. Fatty acid oxidation
Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
2. Hydration to L–3–Hydroxylacyl CoA
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.
- The hydration produces only the L–isomer.

16. Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
3. Oxidation to
3–Ketoacyl CoA
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.

17. Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
4. Thiolysis to produce Acetyl–CoA
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.

18. Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
The process repeats itself
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.

19. Each round in fatty acid degradation involves four reactions
- The pathway is called the β-oxidation pathway.

20. ATP Yield
The complete oxidation of the sixteen carbon palmitoyl–CoA produces 106 ATP's
- 10 ATP's for each AcetylCoA (80)
- 1.5 ATP's for each FADH2 (10.5)
- 2.5 ATP's for each NADH (17.5)
- Minus the 2 for the activation of palmitate (-2)

21. Special Cases
Unsaturated fatty acids (monounsaturated)

22. Unsaturated fatty acids (polyunsaturated)

23. Odd-Chain

24. Ketone Bodies
Use of fatty acids in the citric acid cycle requires carbohydrates for the the production of oxaloacetate.
During starvation or diabetes, OAA is used to make glucose
Fatty acids are then used to make ketone bodies (acetoacetate and D–3–hydroxybutarate)
- Some tissues, such as cardiac muscle, preferentially use ketone bodies.
- The brain can use ketone bodies under conditions of long term starvation.
- High levels of ketone bodies are found in the urine and blood of untreated diabetics.

25. Ketone bodies, acetoacetate and 3–hydroxybutarate are formed from Acetyl–CoA .
- The first reaction is the reverse of the thiolase reaction
- The second reaction is similar to the citrate synthase reaction.
- Acetone forms in a slow spontaneous decarboxylation of acetoacetate (a β–aminoacid). Can smell this on a person's breath.

26. Ketone Bodies as a Fuel Source
The liver is the major source of ketone bodies.
It is transported in the blood to other tissues
Acetoacetate in the tissues
Acetoacetate is first activated to acetoacetate by transferring the CoASH from succinyl–CoA.
It is then split into two Acetyl–CoA by a thiolase reaction
- Ketone bodies are a water soluble equivalent of Acetyl-CoA units.
- Some tissues, such as cardiac muscle, preferentially use ketone bodies.
- The brain can use ketone bodies under conditions of long term starvation.
- Because of their acidity, high concentrations of ketone bodies can be detrimental.

27. Fatty Acids Cannot be Used to Synthesize Glucose
Even though the citric acid cycle intermediate oxaloacetate can be used to synthesize glucose, Acetyl–CoA cannot be used to synthesize oxaloacetate.
The two carbons that enter the citric acid cycle as Acetyl–CoA leave as CO2.
- Ketone bodies are a water soluble equivalent of Acetyl-CoA units.
- Some tissues, such as cardiac muscle, preferentially use ketone bodies.
- The brain can use ketone bodies under conditions of long term starvation.
- Because of their acidity, high concentrations of ketone bodies can be detrimental.

28. Fatty Acid Synthesis
Fatty acid are synthesized and degraded by different pathways.
Synthesis takes place in the cytosol.
Intermediates are attached to the acyl carrier protein (ACP).
In higher organisms, the active sites for the synthesis reactions are all on the same polypeptide.
The activated donor in the synthesis is malonyl–ACP.
Fatty acid reduction uses NADPH + H+.
Elongation stops at C16 (palmitic acid)

29. Formation of Malonyl Coenzyme A
Formation of malonyl–CoA is the committed step in fatty acid synthesis.

30. Acryl Carrier Protein
The intermediates in fatty acid synthesis are covalently linked to the acyl carrier protein (ACP)

31. Elongation
In bacteria the enzymes that are involved in elongation are separate proteins; in higher organisms the activities all reside on the same polypeptide.
To start an elongation cycle, Acetyl–CoA and Malonyl–CoA are each transferred to an acyl carrier protein

32. Acyl-malonyl ACP condensing enzyme forms Acetoacetyl-ACP.
-This reaction is driven by the decarboxylation. Essentially the free energy from the ATP that was hydrolyzed to put the CO2 onto the acetyl-CoA when forming the malonyl-CoA is released when the CO2 comes off in the condensation reaction.

33. The NADPH is used instead of NADH and FADH2
The next three reactions are similar to the reverse of fatty acid degradation, except
The NADPH is used instead of NADH and FADH2
The D–enantiomer of Hydroxybutarate is formed instead of the L–enantiomer -

34. A thioesterase then cleaves the palmityl–CoA from the ACP.
The elongation cycle is repeated six more times, using malonyl–CoA each time, to produce palmityl–ACP.
A thioesterase then cleaves the palmityl–CoA from the ACP.
- The elongation always ends when the fatty acid reaches

35. Stoichiometry of FA synthesis
The stoichiometry of palmitate synthesis:
Synythesis of palmitate from Malonyl–CoA
Synthesis of Malonyl–CoA from Acetyl–CoA
Overall synthesis
Acetyl–CoA is synthesized in the mitochondrial matrix, whereas fatty acids are synthesized in the cytosol
Acetyl–CoA units are shuttled out of the mitochondrial matrix as citrate:

36. Citrate Shuttle
- The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to Acetyl-CoA
- The citrate lyase reaction requires an equivalent of ATP.
- The shuttle allows Acetyl-CoA to be shuttled to the cytosol, where fatty acid synthesis can occur.
- The shuttle consumes one equivalent of ATP.
- The shuttle also substitutes an NADPH for an NADH, which is also needed for synthesis.

37. Sources of NADPH
The malate dehydrogenase and NADP+–linked malate enzyme reactions of the citrate shuttle exchange NADH for NADPH

38. Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
Regulation of Acetyl carboxylase
Global
+ insulin
- glucagon
- epinephrine
Local
+ Citrate
- Palmitoyl–CoA
- AMP

39. - Citrate promotes filament formation
- Palmitoyl-CoA promotes depolymerization of filaments
- Malonyl-CoA inhibits carnitine acetlytransferase I

40. Elongation and Unsaturation
Endoplasmic reticulum systems introduce double bonds into long chain acyl–CoA's
Reaction combines both NADH and the acyl–CoA's to reduce O2 to H2O.
Elongation and unsaturation convert palmitoyl–CoA to other fatty acids.
Reactions occur on the cytosolic face of the endoplasmic reticulum.
Malonyl–CoA is the donor in elongation reactions