1. Sustainable Cities
Chapter 22

2. Core Case Study: The Ecocity Concept in Curitiba, Brazil
Ecocity, green city: Curitiba, Brazil
Bus system: cars banned in certain areas
Housing and industrial parks
Recycling of materials
Helping the poor
New challenges

3. Solutions: Bus Rapid Transit System in Curitiba, Brazil

4. 22-1 What Are the Major Population Trends in Urban Areas?
Concept Urbanization continues to increase steadily and the numbers and sizes of urban areas are growing rapidly, especially in developing countries.

5. Half of the World’s People Live in Urban Areas (1)
Urbanization
Urban growth
Natural increase
Immigration from rural areas
Pushed from rural areas to urban areas
Pulled to urban areas from rural areas

6. Half of the World’s People Live in Urban Areas (2)
Four major trends
Proportion of global population living in urban areas is increasing
Number and size of urban areas is mushrooming
Megacities, hypercities
Urban growth slower in developed countries
Poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized; mostly in developing countries

7. Global Outlook: Satellite Image of Major Urban Areas Throughout the World

8. Typical Daily Traffic Jam of People, Carts, and Other Vehicles in Delhi, India

9. Case Study: Urbanization in the United States (1)
Four phases between 1800 and 2008
Migration from rural areas to large central cities
Migration from large central cities to suburbs and smaller cities
Migration from North and East to South and West
Migration from cities and suburbs to developed rural areas

10. Case Study: Urbanization in the United States (2)
Environmental problems decreasing
Older cities
Deteriorating services
Aging infrastructures

11. Major Urban Areas in the United States Revealed by Satellite Images at Night

12. Urban Sprawl Gobbles Up the Countryside (1)
Contributing factors to urban sprawl in the U.S.
Ample land
Federal government loans
Low-cost gasoline; highways
Tax laws encouraged home ownership
State and local zoning laws
Multiple political jurisdictions: poor urban planning

13. Urban Sprawl Gobbles Up the Countryside (2)
Effects of urban sprawl
Megalopolis
Bowash

14. Urban Sprawl in and around the U. S
Urban Sprawl in and around the U.S. City of Las Vegas, Nevada, from 1973 to 2000

15. Natural Capital Degradation: Urban Sprawl

16. NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Urban Sprawl
Land and Biodiversity
Water
Energy, Air, and Climate
Economic Effects
Loss of cropland
Increased use of surface water and groundwater
Increased energy use and waste
Decline of downtown business districts
Loss of forests and grasslands
Figure 22.6
Some undesirable impacts of urban sprawl, or car-dependent development. Question: Which five of these effects do you think are the most harmful?
Increased air pollution
Increased runoff and flooding
Increased unemployment in central city
Loss of wetlands
Increased greenhouse gas emissions
Increased
surface water and groundwater pollution
Loss and fragmentation of wildlife habitats
Loss of tax base in central city
Enhanced global warming
Decreased natural sewage treatment
Fig. 22-6, p. 593

17. NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Urban Sprawl
Land and Biodiversity
Water
Energy, Air, and Climate
Economic Effects
Loss of cropland
Increased use of surface water and groundwater
Increased energy use and waste
Decline of downtown business districts
Loss of forests and grasslands
Figure 22.6
Some undesirable impacts of urban sprawl, or car-dependent development. Question: Which five of these effects do you think are the most harmful?
Increased air pollution
Increased runoff and flooding
Increased unemployment in central city
Loss of wetlands
Increased greenhouse gas emissions
Increased
surface water and groundwater pollution
Loss and fragmentation of wildlife habitats
Loss of tax base in central city
Enhanced global warming
Decreased natural sewage treatment
Stepped Art
Fig. 22-6, p. 593

18. U.S. Megalopolis of Bowash

19. Animation: SF Bay region growth

20. 22-2 What Are the Major Urban Resource and Environmental Problems?
Concept Most cities are unsustainable because of high levels of resource use, waste, pollution, and poverty.

21. Urbanization Has Advantages
Centers of:
Economic development
Innovation
Education
Technological advances
Jobs
Environmental advantages

22. Urbanization Has Disadvantages (1)
Huge ecological footprints
Lack vegetation
Water problems

23. Urbanization Has Disadvantages (2)
Concentrate pollution and health problems
Excessive noise
Different climate and experience light pollution

24. Natural Capital Degradation: Urban Areas Rarely Are Sustainable Systems

25. Inputs Outputs Energy Solid wastes Food Waste heat Air pollutants
Water
Water pollutants
Raw materials
Greenhouse gases
Manufactured goods
Manufactured goods
Noise
Money
Wealth
Figure 22.8
Natural capital degradation: urban areas rarely are sustainable systems (Concept 22-2). The typical city depends on large nonurban areas for huge inputs of matter and energy resources and for large outputs of waste matter and heat and thus have large ecological footprints that extend far beyond their boundaries. According to an analysis by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees, an area 58 times as large as that of London, England, is needed to supply its residents with resources. They estimate that meeting the needs of all the world’s people at the same rate of resource use as that of London would take at least three more planet Earths. Question: How would you apply the four scientific principles of sustainability (see back cover) to lessen some of these impacts?
Information
Ideas
Fig. 22-8, p. 595

26. Noise Levels of Some Common Sounds

27. Permanent damage begins after 8-hour exposure Earphones at loud level
Noise Levels (in dbA) 85 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Normal breathing
Quiet rural area
Rainfall
Vacuum cleaner
Lawn mower
Rock music
Earphones at loud level
Boom cars
Quiet room
Normal conversation
Average factory
Chain saw
Thunderclap (nearby)
Air raid siren
Military rifle
Whisper
Figure 22.9
Noise levels (in decibel-A sound pressure units) of some common sounds. You are being exposed to a sound level high enough to cause permanent hearing damage if you need to raise your voice to be heard above the racket, if a noise causes your ears to ring, or if nearby speech seems muffled. Prolonged exposure to lower noise levels and occasional loud sounds may not damage your hearing, but it can greatly increase internal stress. Question: How many times per day are your ears subjected to noise levels of 85 or more dbA?
Fig. 22-9, p. 596

28. Life Is a Desperate Struggle for the Urban Poor in Developing Countries
Slums
Squatter settlements
Shantytowns
Terrible living conditions
What can governments do to help?

29. Global Outlook: Extreme Poverty Forces Hundreds of Millions to Live in Slums

30. Case Study: Mexico City
Urban area in crisis
Severe air pollution
Water pollution
50% Unemployment
Deafening noise
Overcrowding
Traffic congestion
Inadequate public transportation
1/3 live in slums (barrios) or squatter settlements
What progress is being made?

31. 22-3 How Does Transportation Affect Urban Environmental Impacts?
Concept A combination of plentiful land, inexpensive fuel, and expanding networks of highways in some countries has resulted in dispersed cities whose residents depend on motor vehicles for most transportation.

32. Cities Can Grow Outward or Upward
Compact cities
Hong Kong, China
Tokyo, Japan
Mass transit
Dispersed cities
U.S. and Canada
Car-centered cities

33. Motor Vehicles Have Advantages and Disadvantages (1)
Mobility and convenience
Jobs in
Production and repair of vehicles
Supplying fuel
Building roads
Status symbol

34. Motor Vehicles Have Advantages and Disadvantages (2)
Largest source of outdoor air pollution
Accidents: death and injury
Helped create urban sprawl
Traffic congestion

35. Reducing Automobile Use Is Not Easy, but It Can Be Done (1)
Full-cost pricing: high gasoline taxes
Difficult to pass in the United States
Strong public opposition
Mass transit: not an option in most cities
Dispersed nature of the U.S.
What about a tax shift?

36. Reducing Automobile Use Is Not Easy, but It Can Be Done (2)
Raise parking fees
Tolls on roads, tunnels, and bridges into major cities
Car-sharing
Charge a fee to drive into a major city
It is working in some cities

37. Some Cities Are Promoting Alternatives to Car Ownership
Bicycles
Heavy-rail systems
Light-rail systems
Buses
Rapid-rail system between urban areas

38. Trade-Offs: Bicycles, Advantages and Disadvantages

39. TRADE-OFFS Bicycles Advantages Disadvantages Affordable
Little protection in an accident
Produce no pollution
Do not protect riders from bad weather
Quiet
Impractical for long trips
Require little parking space
Figure 22.11
Advantages and disadvantages of bicycles. The key to increased bicycle use is the creation of bicycle-friendly systems, including bike lanes. Question: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?
Can be tiring (except for electric bicycles)
Easy to maneuver in traffic
Take few resources to make
Lack of secure bike parking
Fig , p. 600

40. Trade-Offs: Mass Transit Rail, Advantages and Disadvantages

41. TRADE-OFFS Mass Transit Rail Advantages Disadvantages
Expensive to build and maintain
Uses less energy and produces less air pollution than cars
Cost-effective only along a densely populated corridor
Requires less land than roads and parking areas for cars
Commits riders to transportation schedules
Figure 22.12
Advantages and disadvantages of mass transit rail systems in urban areas. Question: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?
Causes fewer injuries and deaths than cars
Can cause noise and vibration for nearby residents
Reduces car congestion in cities
Fig , p. 600

42. Trade-Offs: Buses, Advantages and Disadvantages

43. TRADE-OFFS Buses Advantages Disadvantages Can be rerouted as needed
Can lose money because they need low fares to attract riders
Can get caught in traffic and add to pollution
Cost less to develop and maintain than heavy-rail system
Figure 22.13
Advantages and disadvantages of bus rapid transit (BRT) and conventional bus systems in urban areas. Question: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?
Commits riders to transportation schedules
Can greatly reduce car use and air pollution
Noisy
Fig , p. 601

44. Trade-Offs: Rapid Rail, Advantages and Disadvantages

45. TRADE-OFFS Rapid Rail Advantages Disadvantages
Can reduce travel by car or plane
Expensive to run and maintain
Must operate along heavily used routes to be profitable
Ideal for trips of 200–1,000 kilometers (120–620 miles)
Figure 22.14
Advantages and disadvantages of rapid-rail systems between urban areas. Question: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?
Much more energy efficient per rider than a car or plane
Causes noise and vibration for nearby residents
Fig , p. 601

46. Potential Routes for High-Speed Bullet Trains in the U. S
Potential Routes for High-Speed Bullet Trains in the U.S. and Parts of Canada

47. Case Study: Destroying a Great Mass Transit System in the United States
National City Lines
Purchased and dismantled streetcar systems
Sales of cars and buses increased
Guilty of conspiracy

48. 22-4 How Important Is Urban Land Use Planning?
Concept Urban land-use planning can help to reduce uncontrolled sprawl and slow the resulting degradation of air, water, land, biodiversity, and other natural resources.

49. Conventional Land-Use Planning
Encourages future population growth
Economic development
Revenues: property taxes
Environmental and social consequences
Zoning
Mixed-use zoning

50. Smart Growth Works (1) Smart growth Reduces dependence on cars
Controls and directs sprawl
Cuts wasteful resource

51. Smart Growth Works (2) U.S. cities Curitiba, Brazil
Portland, OR
San Francisco, CA
Curitiba, Brazil
China: stand on urban sprawl
Europe: compact cities

52. Solutions: Smart Growth Tools

53. SOLUTIONS Smart Growth Tools Limits and Regulations Protection Taxes
Preserve existing open space
Buy new open space
Limit building permits
Buy development rights that prohibit certain types of development on land parcels
Urban growth boundaries
Greenbelts around cities
Public review of new development
Taxes
Zoning
Tax land, not buildings
Tax land on value of actual use (such as forest and agriculture) instead of on highest value as developed land
Encourage mixed use of housing and small businesses
Concentrate development along mass transportation routes
Tax Breaks
For owners agreeing not to allow certain types of development (conservation easements)
Promote high-density cluster housing developments
Figure 22.16
Smart growth or new urbanism tools that are used to control urban growth and sprawl. Questions: Which five of these tools do you think are the most important ways to prevent or control urban sprawl? Which, if any, of these tools are used in your community?
For cleaning up and developing abandoned urban sites (brownfields)
Planning
Ecological land-use planning
Revitalization and New Growth
Environmental impact analysis
Revitalize existing towns and cities
Integrated regional planning
Build well-planned new towns and villages within cities
State and national planning
Fig , p. 603

54. SOLUTIONS Smart Growth Tools Limits and Regulations Protection Taxes
Limit building permits
Urban growth boundaries
Greenbelts around cities
Public review of new development
Protection
Preserve existing open space
Buy new open space
Buy development rights that prohibit certain types of development on land parcels
Tax land, not buildings
Taxes
Tax land on value of actual use (such as forest and agriculture) instead of on highest value as developed land
Zoning
Encourage mixed use of housing and small businesses
Concentrate development along mass transportation routes
Promote high-density cluster housing developments
Tax Breaks
For owners agreeing not to allow certain types of development (conservation easements)
For cleaning up and developing abandoned urban sites (brownfields)
Figure 22.16
Smart growth or new urbanism tools that are used to control urban growth and sprawl. Questions: Which five of these tools do you think are the most important ways to prevent or control urban sprawl? Which, if any, of these tools are used in your community?
Planning
Ecological land-use planning
Environmental impact analysis
Integrated regional planning
State and national planning
Revitalization and New Growth
Revitalize existing towns and cities
Build well-planned new towns and villages within cities
Stepped Art
Fig , p. 603

55. Preserving and Using Open Space
Urban growth boundary
U.S. states: Washington, Oregon, and Tennessee
Municipal parks
U.S. cities: New York City and San Francisco
Greenbelts
Canadian cities: Vancouver and Toronto
Western European cities

56. Central Park, New York City, USA

57. 22-5 How Can Cities Become More Sustainable and Livable?
Concept An ecocity allows people to: choose walking, biking, or mass transit for most transportation needs; recycle or reuse most of their wastes; grow much of their food; and protect biodiversity by preserving surrounding land.

58. New Urbanism Is Growing
Conventional housing development
Cluster development
New urbanism, old villageism
Walkability
Mixed-use and diversity
Quality urban design
Environmental sustainability
Smart transportation

59. Conventional and Cluster Housing Developments

60. Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Fig a, p. 605

61. Creek Undeveloped land Marsh Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Fig a, p. 605

62. Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Fig b, p. 605

63. Typical housing development
Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Fig b, p. 605

64. Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Fig c, p. 605

65. Cluster housing development
Creek
Cluster housing development
Figure 22.18
Conventional and cluster housing developments as they might appear if constructed on the same land area. With cluster development, houses, town houses, condominiums, and two- to six-story apartments are built on part of the tract. The rest, typically 30–50% of the area, is left as open space, parks, and paths for biking and walking.
Cluster
Pond
Fig c, p. 605

66. The Ecocity Concept: Cities for People Not Cars
Ecocities or green cities
Build and redesign for people
Use renewable energy resources
Recycle and purify water
Use energy and matter resources efficiently
Prevent pollution and reduce waste
Recycle, reuse and compost municipal waste
Protect and support biodiversity
Urban gardens; farmers markets
Zoning and other tools for sustainability

67. Science Focus: Urban Indoor Farming
Rooftop greenhouses
Sun Works: designs energy-efficient greenhouses
Hydroponic gardens
Skyscraper farms
Ecological advantages and disadvantages

68. Case Study: China’s Vision for an Ecocity
2008: Dongtan, China, ecocity
Carbon neutral city: use renewable resources for energy
Reduce the need for cars, or use electric- or hydrogen-powered cars
Public transportation

69. The Ecovillage Movement Is Growing
Eco-hoods
1993: ecovillage in Los Angeles, CA, U.S.
What is making it work?
Other ecovillages
Success stories