1. Sociology as a Science

2. The Aim of Sociological Research
To move from subjective to more objective knowledge of something:
Subjective
knowledge
Objective
knowledge
An individual’s everyday understanding that comes from their values, experiences and beliefs.
Knowledge that is independent of opinion, prejudice and bias.
© onlineclassroom.tv 2007

3. Ways of collecting Data
Quantitative data – based on numbers and statistics – Objective and goes with Positivist
Qualitative data – based on rich descriptions of events – Subjective and goes with Interpretivist
Primary data – collected direct from participants by the researcher
Secondary Data – are data which already exist in form of statistics, diaries, personal documents etc.
Mixed Methods – mixing two or more methods

4. Interpretivism POSITIVISM Watch– don’t judge.
Emile Durkheim claimed Sociology should be totally objective and value-free.
Sociology should study observable stuff: social facts, that can be recorded as quantitative data so correlations can be identified between variables.
Max Weber claimed Sociology cannot be value-free.
Sociologists will use their subjective feelings to identify a research topic & the concepts they feel are relevant. Qualitative data such as feelings, motivations and experience are important to gain a true understanding
Watch– don’t judge.

5. POSITIVISM – The Scientific approach uses comparative and experimental methods

6. 1. Our knowledge about the social world starts with the collection of facts –
For example, the crime rate, the divorce rate and the number of men that are victims of domestic violence.

7. 2. We create a hypothesis (prediction) about what we observe so that we can study it. Eg. Children from low income households are more likely to become criminal.

8. 3. We can look for (study) correlations – where two or more things happen at the same time between different social facts.
For example, a correlation between women being in care and becoming deviant. To do this we will collect some data.

9. 4. We will analyse our data and see if a positive correlation is found, for example, educational failure causes greater likelihood of criminality. We will use statistical analyses

10. 5. We can develop theories that explain the relationship between different facts.
Eg. Having insufficient integration into society explains why some commit suicide. Remember though that a correlation is not the same as causation !

11. 6. Once we have a theory – test it further
6. Once we have a theory – test it further. If nothing happens to disprove the theory, we have discovered a universal law of human behaviour.

12. 7. Once a law is identified in human behaviour, we can incorporate it into social policy – we can organise people through laws & legislation that will engineer the best results for society.

13. Criticisms of Positivism
There is a problem with correlations and cause and effect.
Can we really study humans in the same way as natural phenomena like plants?
Can any scientists, especially sociologists really be objective and value-free?
Individual experience is part of what makes us human and should not be ignored.

14. Interpretivism – the not-so scientific approach

15. This is HOWARD BECKER.
He says it’s impossible to study anything without using your personal and political beliefs to understand and judge it.

16. Some Sociological theories are clearly allied to a particular political leaning.
For instance, Marxism is a conflict theory which sees capitalism as problematic for human happiness and fairness.
Marxism is therefore left wing.
Feminism also, is a conflict theory which sees patriarchy as problematic for women’s happiness and fairness.
Feminism also, is therefore left wing.

17. Different researchers interpret every scenario differently.
What’s this fella doing here.
Would you go on holiday with him?

18. Starter What method would Atticus Finch think is the best for researching society based on the below quote?
"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it." spoken by Atticus Finch, To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee

19. Verstehen Weber’s term for studying human behaviour
German word for “to understand”, “to grasp by insight”
Best interpreter of human action is “someone who has been there”  Someone who can understand the feelings and motivations of people they are studying- empathy

20. People like Weber say Sociology should study society from the perspective of other people to understand how and why things happen.
Using Weber’s perspective of verstehen requires subjective understanding which draws on people’s opinions.
Science is strongly objective and does not allow opinion to influence research. For this reason, Interpretivists argue Sociology cannot ever be a science.

21. Interpretivism and Symbolic Interactionism
Blumer (1969) argued sociologists need to immerse themselves in the lives of those they study.
It is necessary to understand the meanings created by individuals and groups.
An example is Paul Willis – Learning to Labour
See film.

22. Criticisms of Interpretivism
Research carried out on a micro scale is high in validity but low in representativeness and reliability therefore lacks scientific rigour
Is qualitative research on low numbers of participants meaningless?
Ignores the existence of social norms and a basic order of things and sometimes focuses too heavily on deviant groups.

23. Realist Methodology
Realists are not committed to either quantitative or qualitative research. They argue it is best to choose methods which suit the particular area of study.
They acknowledge that subjective experiences are important
They distinguish between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ systems of causality. Natural sciences work within closed systems where predictions can be made and empirical data collected. They refer to society as an open system (This means being realistic and accepting that humans and society are complex and changeable and subject to countless influences.

24. Feminist Methodology Reinhartz (1992) Women’s ways of knowing.
Grounded in Feminist Theory and moving away from Malestream research
Uses various methods
Aims to bring about social change
Researcher builds rapport with participant and is included as part of the research.
Reflexivity is important (researcher acknowledges their own influence on the research)

25. Criticique
Critics say feminist research is not objective since it is grounded in feminist theory
Feminists argue that reflexivity is a strength since it allows them to be open about their values from the start – therefore they do not falsely claim to be value-free but state how their values have influenced their research.
Some argue feminist research is no longer relevant in the 21st Century.
Realist approaches have been accused of sitting on the fence and refusing to commit to a scientific approach

26. Key concerns in research
Key concerns in research. When we evaluate how well a piece of research has been carried out we consider the following things.
Generalisation
Representativeness
Objectivity/Operationalisation
Validity
Ethics
Reliability
GROVER

27. Generalisation
Can the results of the study be applied to wider society?
E.g if you studied knife crime in Torquay could you apply the findings to the whole of UK?
Likewise if you only studied use of kitchen knives as a weapon you could not gain generalisable results.

28. Representativeness
Does the sample of people you studied accurately represent the population.
E.g If you are studying anti-social behaviour of young people but only studied boys, your sample would not represent ‘young people’

29. Operationalisation
Has the study correctly defined what they are studying.
E.g If you wanted to study happiness but defined this as having Sky television it would not be a very accurate study!

30. Validity
This is related to the accuracy and truthfulness of your findings.
E.g If you went to lower school and asked everyone whether or not they smoked you would probably find that 100% said no! BUT…..

31. Ethics
British Sociological Association have guidelines which must be followed.
Informed Consent
Privacy/confidentiality of participants
Protection from harm caused by potential deception, embarrassment etc
Right to withdraw from the study

32. You want to study children’s playground behaviour.
You get a video camera and film the children secretly from the branches of tree outside the playground.
You show the film to colleagues to analyse your results.

33. You want to find out attitudes towards underage drinking in your area
You ask some year 10 and 11 students to complete a questionnaire. You ask them for their names and addresses so that you can contact them again if there are any problems with their responses.

34. You want to find out about empathy for snails
You get consent from a number of students to take part in a study about snails.
When they arrive you tell them that they have to step in a box of snails and crush them all so that you can monitor facial expressions.
When they are finished you say thank you and ask them to leave.

35. Reliability This is about the way the data is collected.
If it is a consistent measure such as a questionnaire with yes/no answers then another sociologists could repeat the study and get similar results.
If is say an interview/conversation then another sociologists might get different results and the study might be unreliable.

36. Starter – identify whether these are criticisms of quantitative and qualitative data
Variables cannot always be isolated and cause and effect cannot be established
Lacks scientific rigour
Findings cannot be generalised so are of little use
Researchers can never be value-free or completely objective
Statistical analysis can lead to misinterpretation of the data
Open to subjective interpretations of researchers
Of little use to large-scale organisations like government.
Numbers cannot provide explanations

37. Quantitative methods include:-
Social Surveys
Questionnaires
Structured Interviews
Statistical data
Content analysis
Experiments

38. Qualitative Methods include:-
Observation
Ethnography
Interviews
Focus Groups
Analysis of personal document
Complete the ‘Evaluating research methods’ grid either from the blog or on paper

39. Experiments (rarely used in Sociology)
Laboratory experiments are conducted in a controlled environment where the relationship between two variables can be tested. E.g Bandura’s bobo doll experiment.
They are highly scientific and reliable but also very artificial so may lack validity
Field experiments are partly controlled but conducted in a natural setting e.g classroom, seeing if sitting at the back hinders learning.

40. Example of experiments
Rosenthal and Jacobsen Pygmalion in the classroom.
Jane Elliot brown eyes blue eyes.
Bandura bobo doll
Stanley Milgram – study on obedience
Zimbardo – Standford Prison study.

41. Non-Probability or Non-random
Complete ‘evaluating research methods’ grid, the Sampling methods sections – use AS textbook pages
Sample: a segment of the target population being studied.
Probability or Random
[reflects the population]
Non-Probability or Non-random
[does not reflect the population]
Random
Quota
Systematic
Snowball
Stratified
Purposive
© onlineclassroom.tv 2007

42. Access
Access to participants is a big deal in sociological research. Sometimes it can be difficult.
Consider some of the difficulties you might find if you had to access these particpants
Children under 3, Young Offenders, Mentally ill.
Often there will be a person who will facilitate access, for example to school pupils, this person is referred to as a gatekeeper

43. Examples
Researchers want to study the experiences single mums living in inner city areas. They need 20 women to take part.
Researchers wish to study incidents of suicide amongst children under 16. They need 4 or 5 families to take part.
A university needs 5 Asian, 5 Black and 5 white people under 21 to take part in research.

44. Examples
40,000 homes in the UK are selected by a computer to take part in the British Crime Survey.
15 boys and 15 girls are to be selected from 3 different 6th form colleges.
Researchers receive an alphabetical list of all people with alzheimer’s in a hospital to take part in research they must select 20 participants with no computer

45. Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data consists of numbers, so we look for patterns and trends indicated by statistics e.g percentages, averages etc. These data can be presented in various ways
Table form e.g like the sheet with the subject choices data from last year.
Graph form may include
Bar charts
Histogram
Scattergraph for correlations
These make the data easier to analyse for patterns.

46. Analysing Qualitative Data
Qualitative Data consists of rich data in the form of words i.e personal answers to open questions.
This requires a degree of interpretation of written text.
We need to look for emerging patterns or themes. The key themes are identified and then included in our analysis. The analysis will be descriptive as well.
Read the article on Asian Gangs by Claire Alexander and note the findings (they are not statistical !)

47. Starter
How would you go about researching the extent of poverty amongst children in UK society?
What problems would you have to overcome?

48. Research Design Aim, a statement about what your overall aim is
Hyposthesis (If quantitative) a prediction about what you think will be found
Operationalisation (how are you measuring/defining the concept e.g class inequalities)
Sampling method (how will you get access to your participants and select them?)
Method used (primary or secondary data collection and actual method)
Procedure used, how you would actually carry it out
Analysis of the data, how would you analyse it and what you might expect to find.
Evaluation. A couple of paragraphs at most explaining any problems you might anticipate with data collection e.g time, cost, access to sample, and problems with the design itself in terms of GROVER, see above.
A way to remember order of above list:-
A Hippy only smokes marijuana properly after eating.

49. Operationalising concepts
How would you go about measuring the following concepts?
Family income
Sexual orientation
Ethnicity
Social class
Happiness
Which concepts are objective and which are subjective?

50. Research Design
Refer to the example research design in your booklets and complete AIM, HYPOTHESIS and OPERATIONALISATION for this question.
As an A level Sociologist, you have been asked to research whether young single mothers become pregnant in order to avoid work and gain benefits.
Suggest a simple research design and justify your choices. Explain the difficulties that you might experience in carrying out your design and suggest how you would avoid them

51. Quantitative research design example questions
As an A level Sociologist, you have been asked to design a quantitative study into the impact of student loans on graduates in your area.
Suggest a simple research design and justify your choices. Explain the difficulties that you might experience in carrying out your design and suggest how you would avoid them.
As an A level Sociologist, you have been asked to discover whether there is gender inequality in the behaviour and actions of the police in your area.
Suggest a simple research design and justify your choices. Explain the difficulties that you might experience in carrying out your design and suggest how you would avoid them

52. Qualitative research design question
As an A level Sociologist, you have been asked to design a qualitative study into the impact of poverty on pensioners in your area. 
Suggest a simple research design and justify your choices. Explain the difficulties that you might experience in carrying out your design and suggest how you would avoid them
As an A level Sociologist, you have been to discover qualitative differences between how working class and middle class students see their class position.