1. Лексикология. Лекция 3. Морфологическая структура.
M o r p h e m e s the smallest indivisible meaningful language units
Allomorphs (m o r p h e m e v a r i a n t s) - all the representations of the given morpheme that manifest alteration
please, pleas -ing, pleas -ure, pleas –ant
Stem - the part of the word that remains unchanged
throughout its paradigm.
The stem of the paradigm hearty — heartier — (the) heartiest is hearty-. .

2. Simple
Derived
Free
Bound
STEM

3. Stem
When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem (or astern base). The stem expresses the lexical and the part of speech meaning.
For the paradigm heart (sing.) —hearts (pl.) the stem may be represented as heart-. This stem is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is a simple stem. It is also a free stem because it is homonymous to the word heart.
A stem may also be defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm.
The stem of the paradigm hearty — heartier — (the) heartiest is hearty-. It is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix, it is not simple but derived.

4. Classification of stems
Bound stems are especially characteristic of loan words. The point may be illustrated by the following French borrowings: arrogance, charity, courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible and tolerable.
After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining elements are: arrog-, char-, cour-, cow-, -tort, -volve, not-, leg-, toler-, which do not coincide with any semantically related independent words.

5. The Word and the Morpheme
The correlation between the word and the morpheme is problematic
There is a set of intermediary units (half-words - half-morphemes)
Jack’s, a boy, have done.

6. This approach to treating various lingual units is known in linguistics as “a field approach”: polar phenomena possessing the unambiguous characteristic features of the opposed units constitute “the core”, or “the center” of the field, while the intermediary phenomena combining some of the characteristics of the poles make up “the periphery” of the field; e.g.: functional words make up the periphery of the class of words since their functioning is close to the functioning of morphemes

7. Semi-affixes
Semi-affixes are morphemes that are bound but which retain a word-like quality.
Examples are: anti-, counter-, -like and -worthy. 
So we can have:
anti-clockwise or anticlockwise
counter-example or counterexample
bird-like or birdlike
note-worthy or noteworthy

8. COMBINING FORM
A combining form is a type of word component based on an independent word that has been modified to be joined with another word or combining form to create a compound word. 1.Every combining form has its own semantic meaning, but unlike their source words, combining forms generally cannot stand alone as complete words by themselves. 2. Combining forms are part of many English words and are especially common in areas such as science, medicine, and technological terms.

9. COMBINING FORM
3. In English and many other European languages, combining forms are frequently based on Latin or classical Greek words, and so compound words made from them are commonly called classical compounds. 4. The English versions can sometimes be several steps removed from their original language. For example, the suffix -graphy originated as the English version of the French -graphie, which comes from the Latin -graphia. The Latin term, in turn, comes from the Greek graphein, which means to write.

10. Combining forms
5. Combining forms are even more word-like than semi-affixes and frequently occur in technical literature, for instance 
Indo-European or gastro-enteritis.
6.  Some words can be made up entirely from bound forms, but without a free morpheme, e.g.  Francophile.

11. Combining forms kilometer: kilo- (comb. f.) metro (word).
autotroph: auto- (comb. f.) -troph (comb. f.).
electrocardiogram: electro- (comb. f.) cardio- (comb. f.) -gram (comb. f.).
hydroxylic: hydro- (comb. f.) ox- (comb. f.) -yl (comb. f.) –ic (suffix).
chloride: chlor- (comb. f.) -ide (suffix).
diathermy: dia- (prefix) -thermy (comb. f.).

12. Combining forms
• There are combining forms that always precede another lexical element,
therm- / thermo- (precedes): thermo-electric, thermo-dynamic, thermometer, thermo-nuclear.
others always follow them,
-gram (follows): dactylogram — отпечаток пальцев, histogram — гистограмма
and finally there are combining forms that can
precede or follow a word:
phono- / phon- o –phone (precedes or follows): tele-phone, allo-phone, phono-graph, phono-logy
• The origin of most of them is Greek or Latin, though there are some
exceptions, as atto- and femto-, from Norwegian and Danish.

13. Three types of morphemic segmentability
c o m p l e t e (живое членение слов) ,
c o n d i t i o n a l (условное членение слов)
d e f e c t i v e (дефектное членение слов) .

14. words
segmentable
fearless
Non-segmentable
girl

15. C o n d i t i o n a l morphemic segmentability
characterises words whose segmentation into the constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons. pseudo-morphemes or quasi-morphemes cf. retain, detain or receive, deceive, re-organise, deorganise, decode

16. D e f e c t i v e morphemic segmentability
the property of words whose component morphemes seldom or never recur in other words. a unique morpheme cf. lionet, cellaret – pocket ringlet, leaflet – hamlet

17. Classification of morphemes
root-morphemes (roots)
Roots express the concrete, “material” part of the meaning of the word and constitute its central part
affixal (derivational)  morphemes (affixes).
Affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word: they specify, or transform the meaning of the root. 

18. An affix is not-root or a bound morpheme that modifies the meaning and / or syntactic category of the stem in some way.
Affixes are classified into
prefixes,
suffixes,
infixes,
interfixes.

19. THE SEMANTIC CRITERION
lexical, or word-building (derivational) affixes
together with the root constitute the stem of the word
grammatical, or word-changing affixes
express different morphological categories, such as number, case, tense and others. 

20. Classification of morphemes
Prefixes in English are only lexical: the word underestimate is derived from the word estimate with the help of the prefix under-. 

21. Classification of morphemes
A suffix is a morpheme following the root forming a new derivative in a different word class (-en, -y, -less in heart-en, heart-y, heart-less) or expressing different morphological categories

22. Classification of morphemes
Suffixes in English
lexical or grammatical (inflexions, inflections, inflectional endings)
underestimates:
 -ate is a lexical suffix, because it is used to derive the verb estimate (v) from the noun esteem (n),
–s is a grammatical suffix making the 3rd person, singular form of the verb to underestimate.

23. Grammatical suffixes
Grammatical suffixes in English have certain peculiarities:
since they are the remnants of the old inflectional system, there are few (only six) remaining word-changing suffixes in English: -(e)s, -ed, - ing, - er, - est, - en; 
most of them are homonymous, e.g. -(e)s is used to form the plural of the noun (dogs), the genitive of the noun (my friend’s), and the 3rd person singular of the verb (works);
 some of them have lost their inflectional properties and  can be attached to units larger than the word, e.g.: his daughter Mary’s arrival. 

24. Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles:
According to the lexical-grammatical character of the base suffixes are usually added to, they may be:
deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base): -er (builder); -ing (writing);
denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal base): - less (timeless); -ful (hopeful); -ist (scientist); -some (troublesome);
deajectival suffixes (those added to the adjectival base): - en (widen); -ly (friendly); -ish (whitish); -ness (brightness).

25. According to the part of speech formed suffixes fall into several groups:
noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage, bondage); -ance/- ence (assistance, reference); -dom (freedom, kingdom); - er (teacher, baker); -ess (actress, hostess); -ing (building, wasing);
adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (favourable, incredible, soluble); -al (formal, official); -ic (dynamic); - ant/-ent (repentant, dependent);
numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (sixth); -ty (thirty);
verb-forming suffixes: -ate (activate); -er (glimmer); -fy/- ify (terrify, specify); -ize (minimize); -ish (establish);
adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (quickly, coldly); -ward/- wards (backward, northwards); -wise (likewise).

26. Semantically suffixes fall into:
Monosemantic: the suffix -ess has only one meaning ‘female’ – tigress, taloress;
Polysemantic: the suffix -hood has two meanings:
‘condition or quality’ – falsehood, womanhood;
‘collection or group’ – brotherhood.

27. According to their generalizing denotational meaning suffixes may fall into several groups. E.g., noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:
the agent of the action: -er (baker); -ant (accountant);
appurtenance: -an/-ian (Victorian, Russian); -ese (Chinese);
collectivity: -dom (officialdom); -ry (pleasantry);
diminutiveness:-ie (birdie); -let (cloudlet); -ling (wolfling).

28. According to their stylistic reference suffixes may be classified into:
those characterized by neutral stylistic reference: -able (agreeable); -er (writer); - ing (meeting);
those having a certain stylistic value: -oid (asteroid); -tron (cyclotron).
These suffixes occur usually in terms and are bookish.

29. Classification of morphemes
A prefix is a derivational morpheme preceding the root-morpheme and modifying its meaning (understand – mis-understand, correct – in-correct).

30. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles
According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base prefixes are usually added to, they may be:
deverbal (those added to the verbal base): re- (rewrite); over- (overdo); out- (outstay);
denominal (those added to the nominal base): - (unbutton); de- (detrain); ex- (ex-president);
deadjectival (those added to the adjectival base): un- (uneasy); bi- (biannual).
deadverbial (those added to the adverbial base): un- (unfortunately); in- independently).

31. adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately); up- (uphill).
According to the class of words they preferably form prefixes are divided into:
verb-forming prefixes: en-/em- (enclose, embed); be- (befriend); de- (dethrone);
noun-forming prefixes: non- (non-smoker); sub- (sub- (subcommittee); ex- (ex- husband)
adjective-forming prefixes: un- (unfair); il- (illiterate); ir- (irregular);
adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately); up- (uphill).

32. Semantically prefixes fall into:
Monosemantic: the prefix ex- has only one meaning ‘former’ – ex-boxer;
Polysemantic; the prefix dis- has four meanings:
‘not’ (disadvantage);
‘reversal or absence of an action or state’ (diseconomy, disaffirm);
‘removal of’ (to disbranch);
‘completeness or intensification of an unpleasant action’ (disgruntled).

33. According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
negative prefixes: un- (ungrateful); non- (nonpolotical); in- (incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a- (amoral);
reversative prefixes: un2- (untie); de- (decentralize); dis2- (disconnect);
pejorative prefixes: mis- (mispronounce); mal- (maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific);
prefixes of time and order: fore- (foretell); pre- (pre-war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president);
prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite);
locative prefixes: super- (superstructure), sub- (subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans- (transatlantic).

34. These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.
According to their stylistic reference prefixes fall into:
those characterized by neutral stylistic reference: over- (oversee); under- (underestimate); un-(unknown);
those possessing quite a definite stylistic value: pseudo- (pseudo-classical); super- (superstructure); ultra- (ultraviolet); uni- (unilateral); bi- (bifocal).
These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.

35. 4. PRODUCTIVE AND NON-PRODUCTIVE AFFIXES
The word-forming activity of affixes may change in the course of time. This raises the question of productivity of derivational affixes, i.e. the ability of being used to form new, occasional or potential words, which can be readily understood by the language-speakers.
Thus, productive affixes are those used to form new words in this particular period of language development.

36. Some productive affixes
Noun-forming suffixes:
-er (manager), -ing (playing), -ness (darkness), -ism1 (materialism), -ist (parachutist), -ism (realism), -
-ancy (redundancy), -ry (gimmickry), -or (reactor), -ics (cybernetics).
Adjective-forming suffixes
 -y (tweedy), -ish (smartish), -ed (learned), -able (tolerable), -less (jobless), -ic (electronic).
Adverb-forming suffixes
-ly (equally)
Verb-forming suffixes
-ize/-ise (realise), -ate (oxidate), -ify (qualify).
Prefixes
un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), dis- (disappoint)

37. Noun-forming suffixes
Non-productive affixes are the affixes which are not able to form new words in this particular period of language development
Noun-forming suffixes
 -th (truth), -hood (sisterhood), -ship (scholarship).
Adjective-forming suffixes
-ly (sickly), -some (tiresome), -en (golden), -ous (courageous), -ful (careful)
Verb-forming suffix
-en (strengthen)

38. The productivity of an affix should not be confused with its frequency of occurrence that is understood as the existence in the vocabulary of a great number of words containing the affix in question.
An affix may occur in hundreds of words, but if it is not used to form new words, it is not productive, for instance, the adjective suffix –ful.

39. INFIX
regular vowel interchange which takes place inside the root and transforms its meaning “from within” can be treated as an infix, e.g.: a lexical infix – blood – to bleed; a grammatical infix – tooth – teeth.

40. Infixes
Grammatical infixes are also defined as inner inflections as opposed to grammatical suffixes which are called outer inflections.
Since infixation is not a productive (regular) means of word-building or word-changing in modern English, it is more often seen as partial suppletivity. Full suppletivity takes place when completely different roots are paradigmatically united, e.g.: go – went.

41. INTERFIX
An interfix is an affix with little meaning that occurs between two contentful morphemes: Sportsman Linguodidactic Speedometre