1. Motivation and Emotion
CH. 8

2. The Subjective Experience of Emotion
Emotion researchers agree that there are a limited number of basic emotions, that all humans experience
These emotions are thought to be biologically determined, the product of evolution

4. There are 3 characteristics commonly associated with motivation:
Activation
Persistence
Intensity

5. Activation
Activation is demonstrated by the initiation or production of behavior
Ex: starting a diet or preparing for a 5K

6. Persistence
Persistence is demonstrated by continued efforts or the determination to accomplish the goal, often in the face of obstacles
Ex: overcoming extreme heat or an injury in preparation for the 5K

7. Intensity
Intensity is seen as the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior
Ex: preparing with greater intensity, practicing harder and harder in preparation for a 5K

8. Motivation is closely tied to emotional processes and vice versa
We are motivated to experience a particular emotion, such as feeling victorious
The experience of different emotions can motivate us to take action (ex: avoiding dissatisfaction)

9. Motivational Concepts and Theories
Instinct Theories
In the late 1800’s psychology embraced instinct theories to explain motivation
According to instinct theories, people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of instinctual behavior patterns

10. Just as animals display action patterns such as migration or mating rituals, humans were also thought to be motivated by instinctual or inborn behavior patterns
Inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, early psychologists like William James created lists of human instincts

12. Drive Theories
Beginning in the 1920’s, instinct theories were replaced by drive theories
Drive theories stated that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as thirst or hunger

13. Drive theorists, including Robert S. Woodworth and Clark L
Drive theorists, including Robert S. Woodworth and Clark L. Hull believed that drives are triggered by the internal mechanisms of homeostasis
The human body automatically tries to maintain a steady state, which is what homeostasis means

14. According to drive theorists, when an internal imbalance is detected by homeostatic mechanisms, a drive to restore balance is produced
Ex: after you have not eaten anything for several hours, this unmet biological need creates a drive state – hunger – that motivates your behavior

15. Incentive Motivation
Building on the drive theories, incentive theories emerged in the 1940’s and 1950’s
Incentive theories proposed that behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition

16. Incentive theories drew heavily from well- established learning principles, such as reinforcement, and the work of influential learning theorists such as Pavlov, Watson, Skinner and Tolman
Tolman stressed the importance of cognitive factors in learning and motivation, especially the expectation that a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal

17. Arousal Theory
Arousal Theory is based on the observation that people find both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal unpleasant
When arousal is too low, we experience boredom and become motivated to increase arousal by seeking out stimulating experiences

18. When arousal is too high, we seek to reduce arousal in a less stimulating environment
Thus, people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, one that is neither too high or too low

19. Humanistic Theory
In the late 1950’s, humanistic theories of motivation were introduced by psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Humanistic theories emphasized psychological and cognitive components in human emotion

20. According to the humanistic perspective, people are motivated to realize their highest personal potential
Humanistic psychologists acknowledged that the motivation to achieve personal potential was inborn to a degree, however they believed that the environment was also an important factor (people need a positive and supportive environment to reach their full potential)

21. Psychological Needs as Motivators
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow believed that people are innately motivated to satisfy a progression of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs
Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, the individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, steadily progressing upward

22. The ultimate goal is self-actualization, the realization of personal potential

25. Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory
To realize optimal psychological functioning and growth throughout the lifespan, Ryan and Deci believe that three innate and universal psychological needs must be met :

26. Autonomy: the need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals so that they are in harmony with one’s own interests and values
Competence: the need to effectively learn and master appropriately challenging tasks
Relatedness: the need to feel attached to others and experience a sense of belongingness, security and intimacy

27. How does a person satisfy the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness?
In a supportive environment, an individual will pursue interests, goals and relationships that satisfy these psychological needs
In turn this enhances the person’s psychological growth and intrinsic motivation

28. Intrinsic Motivation is the desire to engage in tasks that the person finds inherently satisfying ,enjoyable, or challenging
Extrinsic Motivation consists of external influences on behavior, such as rewards, social evaluations, rules and responsibilities

29. According to Ryan and Deci, the person who has satisfied the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness internalizes and integrates different external motivators as part of his/her identity
The person incorporates societal expectations, rules, and regulations as values or rules that he or she personally endorses

30. Competence and Achievement Motivation
Competence Motivation occurs when you strive to use your cognitive, social and behavioral skills to be capable and exercise control in a situation
A step beyond competence motivation is Achievement Motivation – the drive to excel, succeed or outperform others at some task

31. In the 1930’s, Henry Murray identified 20 fundamental human needs or motives, including achievement motivation
Murray also developed a test to measure human motives, called the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)

32. The TAT consists of a series of ambiguous pictures
The TAT consists of a series of ambiguous pictures. The person being tested is asked to make up a story about each picture
The story is then coded for different motivational themes, including achievement

33. The Subjective Experience of Emotion
Emotion researchers agree that there are a limited number of basic emotions, that all humans experience
These emotions are thought to be biologically determined, the product of evolution

35. The Neuroscience of Emotion
When you are threatened, the sympathetic nervous system triggers the fight or flight response, a rapidly occurring series of automatic physical reactions
Breathing and heart rate accelerate, blood pressure rises, you perspire, your mouth goes dry, pupils dilate, digestion stops

36. Sympathetic nervous system is also activated by intense emotions such as excitement, love or joy
Example: riding a roller coaster excited the SNS
There are different patterns of physiological arousal for different emotions

37. Ex: fear, anger and sadness are all associated with increased heart rate
Research conducted by Levenson. He believed that these differing patterns of SNS activation are universal, reflecting biological responses to the basic emotions

38. The Expression of Emotion
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (written by Charles Darwin)
He said that human emotional expressions are innate and culturally universal
Humans exhibit the greatest range of facial expressions

39. Psychologist Paul Ekman estimates that the human face is capable of creating more than 7,000 different expressions
He found that facial expressions for the basic emotions are probably innate and are hard-wired in the brain
Also found that facial expressions are universal across different cultures

40. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Based on theories from William James and Carl Lange
States that emotion follows this sequence: 1. we perceive a stimulus, 2. physiological and behavioral changes occur, 3. we experience a particular emotion