1. THE NATURE OF ENQUIRY: SETTING THE FIELD
© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON

2. STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
The search for truth
Two conceptions of social reality
Positivism
The assumptions, nature and tools of science
The scientific method
Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method
Post-positivism
Naturalistic approaches
Normative and interpretive paradigms
Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, constructionism
Criticisms of naturalistic and interpretive approaches
Post-positivism, postmodernism and post-structuralism
Complexity theory

3. PARADIGMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Positivist
Interpretive
Mixed methods
Post-positivist
Post-structuralist
Post-modernist
Complexity theory

4. Quantification, large scale
POSITIVISM (MACRO)
Generalization
Natural science
Nomothetic laws
Objectivity
Causality
Prediction
Control, manipulation
Quantification, large scale

5. POSITIVIST DESIGN IDENTIFY TOPIC REVIEW PREVIOUS LITERATURE LOOK FOR
ALTERNATIVE
EXPLANATIONS
FORMULATE
HYPOTHESIS
DESIGN
RESEARCH
START PROCESS
AGAIN
COLLECT DATA NO
ANALYSE DATA
REPORT
FINDINGS
YES

6. POSITIVIST METHODS
Experiments
Surveys
Tests

7. POST-POSITIVISM
Our knowledge of the world is not absolute but partial, conjectural, falsifiable, challengeable, provisional, probabilistic and changing. There is no absolute truth, but probabilistic knowledge only.
No once-and-for-all foundational knowledge and grand narratives of a singular objective reality, discoverable through empiricism, positivism, behaviourism and rationalism.
Tentative speculation in which multiple perspectives, claims and warrants are brought forward by the researcher.
No theory-free observations; different theories can support specific observations/facts. Social facts, ways of thinking and observing, are social constructions rather than objectively and universally true.
The values, biographies, perceptions, theories, environment and existing knowledge of researchers influence what is being observed.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

8. POST-POSITIVISM
Facts and observations are theory-laden and value-laden. The separation of fact and value in positivism is unsustainable.
Facts and theories are fallible.
There exists an objective reality, but there is a pluralist view of multiple, coexisting realities rather than a single reality.
The scientific method holds, but strong theories are contingent on their ability to withstand ‘severe tests’ of their falsifiability.
Discoveries are subject to future falsification in the light of new evidence.
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

9. INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM
Naturalistic
Idiographic, non-generalizable
Understand
and interpret
Fluidity,
change
Multiple perspectives
Specific,
Context-bound
Intentionality
Subjectivity
Agency

10. NATURALISTIC APPROACHES
Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenology
Constructionism/
Constructivism
Symbolic interactionism
NATURALISTIC & INTERPRETIVE METHODS

11. INTERPRETIVE/ETHNOGRAPHIC
IDENTIFY TOPIC
LITERATURE REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGN
DATA COLLECTION
DATA ANALYSIS
ELABORATION OF
CONCEPTS/THEORIES
REPORT OF FINDINGS

12. NATURALISTIC METHODS Ethnography Narratives Documents Interviews
Observation
Interviews
THICK DESCRIPTION

13. NUMBERS,
MEASUREMENT
POSITIVIST
APPROACHES
SURVEY,
EXPERIMENT
ETHNOGRAPHY
INTERVIEW
NATURALISTIC
APPROACHES
OBSERVATION
CASE STUDY
ACTION RESEARCH

14. POST-POSITIVISM, POSTMODERNISM, POST-STRUCTURALISM
Multiple realities
Phenomenology
Multiple meanings
Contradictory discourses
Discourses
Interpretive
Agency and individuality
No grand narratives
Difference and diversity
Context and temporality
Relativist
No theory-free observation
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

15. COMPLEXITY THEORY Open systems Holism Emergence Non-linear systems
Connected-ness
Emergent order
Feedback, communic-ation
Self-organization
Complex adaptive systems
Relationships
Tipping points
Diversity in dynamical systems
© 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors