1. Research methods
Lesson 2

2. List and define the main features of science
Starter
List and define the main features of science

3. The scientific process
Merge of the empirical method and the hypothetico -deductive model.
What was the empirical method?
Francis Bacon (17th Century),
Gathering data through experience
observe events and record these as descriptions and measurements.
Induction of laws (move from the particular instances to the general law)
However,
Do we observe without preconceptions?
Inevitable not to bring our already existing ideas/knowledge in to the situation.
Star moving in the sky – know it must be a satelite but only gained this through astronomical knowledge. Other theories propose differently.
Without prior knowledge both theories are equally as acceptable.
Not telling us how the rat learns. What motivates humans to work: just that if we reward a rat after he presses the bar 20 times get hard working rat.

4. Asking why? Generating theories for laws
Humans find it difficult to just record observations.
Question ‘why does this occur’
Question as we watch

5. Hypothetico-deductive model
A method in which theories (general explanations of observed laws or regularities) are evaluated by generating and testing hypotheses.

6. Theory and hypothesis Theory:
fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon
Theories can be used to make predictions
Deduction of a hypotheses that we can test in order to support or refute the theory
Hypotheses:
general claim about the world
Follows logically from a broader background theory.
tested in scientific ways to support or refute the theory

7. Theory or hypothesis? Heat is a cause of aggression
Theory – evidence to support it. Evidence is derived from the hypothesis.
Violent crimes are more numerous in the hotter months of the year
Proposed hypothesis that we want to test

8. The scientific process
Activity: 1 individually cut out the research process steps and place in correct order. Activity: 2 Fill in the correct step on the scientific research diagram. Activity 3 Apply the scientific process to Simon Baron Cohen and empathising-systemising theory

9. Disconfirming theories
Researchers constantly try to challenge findings and to demonstrate the limitations of the effect. I am thinking of a rule that generates valid sets of numbers. e.g. if the rule was descending odd numbers. The numbers 9,7, 3 would fit The numbers 7, 3, 1 would fit. The numbers 9, 8, 5 would NOT fit

10. Disconfirming theories
I have a rule in my head I tell you the following numbers: 2, 4, 6 and 8, 10, 12. Now generate more sets of numbers and I will tell you whether they fit the rule or not. What would be the next set of numbers you would try?
Can’t get anywhere unless you find numbers that don’t fit..
If you say go up in 2’s and I say yes – won’t know if they just got up, go up in 2’s or in even no.s.
If you want to test a hunch than test something that you don’t think wouldn’t go. Reject possible opportunities

11. What does this exercise tell us?
If we get it right – it doesn’t tell us about the limitations
If we want to learn more about a phenomenon: good to find out where it does not work.
Example social loafing effect: Taiwanese children.

12. Popper: falsifiability
We find out whether theories are robust by trying to show them to be wrong
"all swans are white"
More productive to falsify
falsifiable - if one black swan is viewed the statement is clearly untrue.
Psychological studies are designed to challenge hypothesis.
An example of falsifiability at work:
The statement "all swans are white" is falsifiable - if one black swan is viewed the statement is clearly untrue.

13. What approach comes under attack for being unfalsifiable?
Falsifiability
Robust scientific research tries to eliminate alternative explanations.
Theories according to Popper (1959) ‘must be phrased in terms that make them falsifiable’.
Note this does not mean that the theory MUST be falsified, only that we do tests that would falsify it IF it is indeed false.
What approach comes under attack for being unfalsifiable?

14. Plenary: Answer these questions on the whiteboard
1. Outline the scientific process
2. Explain the principle of falsifiability
On the post-it write anything you don’t understand or are unsure about?

15. Exam question
A teacher has worked in the same primary school for two years. While chatting to the children, she is concerned to find that the majority of them come to school without having eaten a healthy breakfast.
In her opinion, children who eat 'a decent breakfast' learn to read more quickly and are better behaved than children who do not.
She now wants to set up a pre-school breakfast club for the children so that they can all have this beneficial start to the day. The local authority is not willing to spend money on this project purely on the basis of the teacher's opinion and insists on having scientific evidence for the claimed benefits of eating a healthy breakfast.
Explain why the teacher's personal opinion cannot be accepted as scientific evidence.
Refer to some of the major features of science in your answer.
(6 marks)