1. Lithosphere and Hydrosphere

2. A little intro... The Earth is not nearly as big as you might think...
Video...
We are only the tiniest drop in the ocean...

3. Composition of the Earth

4. Lithosphere
Lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the topmost part of the upper mantle
Minerals are solid inorganic substances with clearly defined composition and properties
Minerals must be occur naturally in the Earth

5. Examples of Minerals Single Elements Several Elements Bonded Together
Gold (Au)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Several Elements Bonded Together
Quatz (SiO2)
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4)
There are about 4000 minerals on Earth
They include Quartz, Diamonds, Rubies, etc.

6. Classification Colour
Certain minerals have a characteristic colours due to an element in their composition
They are known as idiochromatic minerals
Certain minerals are varying colours due to impurities in the minerals. Without the impurities, they would be colourless.
They are known as allochromatic minerals

7. Classification Transparency Transparent Translucent Opaque
Light passes right through them
Translucent
Some light passes through but it’s not clear
Opaque
No light passes through

8. Transparent

9. Translucent

10. Opaque

11. Hardness
Hardness depends on the strength of the bonds uniting the atoms in a mineral.
Is measured using the Mohs scale
The scale ranges from 1 to 10
The higher the number, the stronger the mineral

12. Mohs Scale

13. Streaking
When you rub a mineral on a porcelain surface, it leaves a powdery coloured streak
The streak is not necessarily the same colour as the mineral, but will always be the same colour for that same mineral
Idiochromatic minerals leave a brightly coloured streak and allochromatic minerals leave a white or pale powder

14. Mining
Mining is the act of going and digging for a mineral once a source has been located.
The rocks which have been mined, that contain a mineral, are called ore.
When a particular area has a high amount of a mineral, the layer where it is found is called a deposit.

15. Rocks Rocks are heterogeneous solids composed of many minerals
Rocks are formed from 3 processes
Pressure compresses sediment
Rocks can be formed from volcanic activity
The high pressure and heat causes rocks to transform

16. Types of Rocks Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks
Formed when lava cools
Sedimentary rocks
Formed by the accumulation and compression of debris
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous and Sedimentary rocks transformed by heat and pressure

17. Soil Horizons Soil comes from parent rock.
Parent rock is the solid part of the Earth’s crust.
It gets worn down with time by rain, frost and wind
Soil horizons are differentiated layers running roughly parallel to the surface of the ground

18. Soil Horizons

19. Permafrost
Permafrost is ground whose temperature had been at 0°C or lower for at least 2 years
About 50% of the Canada is covered by permafrost
The frozen layer can attain a depth of 500m
It can be found in polar regions and at high altitudes

20. Permafrost in Canada

21. Effect of Global Warming

22. Energy Ressources
There are multiple sources of energy in the lithosphere.
These fuels are in different forms and used in many different ways.
These include fossil fuels, uranium and geothermics

23. Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels result from the transformation of organic residue
These energy sources consist of oil, natural gas and coal.

24. Oil and Gas
Oil and natural gas comes from small marine animals and algae that sank to the bottom of the seas a very long time ago.
When they died, these organisms sank to the bottom and were gradually covered in sand, rocks and minerals.
Under pressure, they are eventually turned into oil and gas.

25. Oil and Gas Formation

26. Coal
Coal does not come from marine organisms, but from terrestrial plants and trees that once grew in swamps
Over time, these swamps are buried under sand and silt.
The organic residue was compressed and turned into coal.

27. Coal Formation

28. Burn Baby, Burn
When burning fossil fuels, they emit thermal energy (heat) which can be converted into electrical energy or mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy is used to make engines work.
The main by-products of a combustion are combustions are CO2.

29. Uranium
Uranium is a radioactive element naturally occurring in the Earth’s crust.
It produces large amounts of nuclear energy.
A handful of uranium can produce as much energy as 70,000 kg of coal.
Uranium does not produce CO2, but does cause other problems.

30. Uranium
The main problem with using radioactive energy is dealing with the radioactivity and the waste.
There is no way to eliminate radioactive waste.
The material and equipment which comes into contact with the radioactivity, it will stay radioactive for hundreds of years.
The waste is cooled and then either buried in former mines or in specialized concrete pits.

31. Uranium Atom

32. Uranium Ore

33. Geothermics
Geothermal energy is the energy that comes from the internal heat of the Earth.
Can be used for both heating and cooling of your home.
These reduce the CO2 emissions, however are much very costly to install than traditional heating methods.

34. Geothermics

35. Questions
P. 215 #15 and 16
15- Name the three fuels that come directly from the lithosphere?
Natural gas
Coal
Oil

36. Questions 16- Name the form of energy described in each statement
A) It is produced by atomic fission.
Nuclear energy
B) It is the result of the decomposition of prehistoric plants and animals.
Fossil fuels
C) It is derived from the internal heat of the Earth.
Geothermics

37. Questions D) It emits more greenhouse gases than any other form.
Fossil fuels
E) It leaves behind radioactive waste.
Nuclear energy
F) It is in danger of running out within a few decades.

38. Hydrosphere

39. Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the Earth’s outer layer of water, uniting water in all of its states: liquid, solid and gas
97.5% of water on the Earth is salt water
2.5% is fresh water
Of the fresh water, 79% is found in glaciers
21% is in lakes, rivers and groundwater

40. Inland Waters
All the freshwater bodies found on continents, uniting rivers, lakes and groundwater falls to the earth as rain or snow , runs into streams, infiltrates the ground, seeps into natural cracks in rocks and minerals, flows into lakes and rivers, etc.

41. Watersheds (Catchment Area)
An area of land where all of its water drains into one larger body of water (lake or ocean)
The limits of a watershed defined by the following factors
Topography, geology, climate, vegetation, agricultural, industrial and urban development

42. Watershed Limits Topography: The shape, slope and terrain of an area
Geology: The type, depth and structure of the rock.
Climate: Rain/snowfall, winds and temperature

43. Watershed Limits
Vegetation: The density and diversity of the plants in the area
Agricultural, industrial and urban development: Any human construction effects water flow

44. Canadian Watershed

45. The Oceans How many oceans are there? Pacific Atlantic Arctic Indian5!
Pacific
Atlantic
Arctic
Indian
Southern (as of the year 2000)

46. The Oceans Ocean water is moved by currents all around the world.
Two important factors must be discussed first
Temperature
Salinity

47. Temperature The depth of the ocean
Light can only penetrate to a certain depth
The ocean is divided into 3 zones
Mixed layer
Thermocline
Deep Water

48. Temperature Mixed layer Thermocline Deep water Up to ~200m in depth
The warmest part of the ocean
Thermocline
~200 - ~1000m
Water drops in temperature here due to the small amount of light which is present
Deep water
~1000m – Ocean floor
Very cold (~3-5°C)
Almost no light at all

49. Temperature

50. Marianas Trench

51. Marianas Trench At its deepest it is over 11 km down
The water pressure is around 15,750 psi
That’s equivalent to 15,750 pounds on every square inch of your body.
Atmospheric pressure is around 15 psi

52. Temperature
Seasons
Temperatures can vary greatly from season to season
Due to water’s high specific heat capacity (ability to store heat), the temperature varies less than on land

53. Temperature
Latitude
The closer to the equator, the higher the mean temperature
Equator between 25-28°C
Temperate Zones 12-17°C

54. Salinity
Salinity is a measure of the amount of salt dissolved in a liquid
The average salinity is between 3.4 – 3.7%
The salt in the water comes from the dissolved minerals from rocks
Salinity drops near ice packs and glaciers due to their fresh water mixing with the salt water
Salinity increases to 4% in the Red Sea due to excessive evaporation

55. Ocean Salinity

56. Saltiest Places on Earth
Dead sea
33.7%
Lake Assal
34.8%
Don Juan Pond
Above 40%
It’s so salty that even at -30°C, it doesn’t freeze

57. Ocean Currents
Ocean Currents is the movement of sea water in a certain direction
There are two main types of ocean currents, surface currents and subsurface currents
Ocean circulation is the combined effects of all the currents that move across the oceans

58. Ocean Currents

59. Currents Surface Currents Subsurface Currents Mostly wind driven
Move horizontally
First 400m in depth
Subsurface Currents
Not driven by wind
Due to variations in densities
Densities varies with temperature and salinity

60. Thermohaline circulation
Thermo = Heat
Halos = Salt
This is the movement of water in the ocean due to variations in the salt content and the temperature of the water
Bill Nye!

61. Cryosphere
The cryosphere consists of all of the frozen water on the Earth
This includes glaciers, pack ice, frozen lakes and rivers, snow and, ice in permafrost
As it was previously mentioned, almost 80% of fresh water is found in glaciers

62. Pack Ice
Pack ice is composed of the ice floating on the oceans near the North and South Poles
As pieces of ice break off, they float away and are then called ice floes
In the winter, the ice pack stretches over 12 million kilometres
However, due to global warming, the pack ice is shrinking every year

63. Pack Ice

64. Glaciers vs Icebergs
Glaciers are a mass of ice on land, formed by compressed snow
Icebergs are huge chunks of glaciers which break off and fall into the ocean
Due to ice being less dense than water, they float.

65. Glaciers

66. Facts about Glaciers You don’t need to write this!
Glaciers cover about 10% of the Earth
During the last ice age, glaciers covered around 1/3 of the Earth
They are constantly in motion
Anywhere from 2-3m a day to 20-30m a day
Fastest recorded glacier movement was 67m in 25 minutes after an earthquake
They can be anywhere from the size of a football field to over 150 km long

67. Icebergs

68. Iceberg facts Don’t need to write this!
About 90% of an iceberg’s mass is under the water.
There has been at least one recorded murder on an iceberg
The ice in an iceberg can be as much as 15,000 years old and take almost an entire year to melt