1. Philosophy in the Age of Reason

2. Revolution Sparks Enlightenment
Scientific success convinced educated Europeans of the power of human reason
Natural Law – rules discoverable by reason
Why not use natural law to better understand social, economic and political problems?
Using methods of new science reformers set out to study human behavior and solve problems of society

3. Hobbes and Locke: Conflicting Views
Hobbes believes..
Locke believes…
in powerful government
That people are greedy, cruel and selfish; Life would be miserable
To escape they enter into a social contract which they agree to give up freedom for organized society
In natural rights (life, liberty, property)
People are reasonable, and moral
People formed government to protect natural rights
Government should be limited and accepted by all
If government violated rights the people should overthrow it…

4. The Philosophes
Hobbs and Locke, who witnessed the English Revolution, influence many Enlightenment thinkers…
1700s was a flowering of enlightenment thought…
In France, many philosophes “philosophers” met to discuss ways to use reason to reform government, law and society…

5. The Philosophes: Rousseau
The Social Contract – believed people were good but corrupted by society
Believed government should have limited control and only governments that were freely elected could impose control
Put faith in the “general will” – The good of the community as a whole should be placed above individual interests.

6. The Philosophes: Montesquieu
Studied governments of Europe and criticized absolute monarchy
1748 – Spirit of the Laws discussed government throughout history
Felt best way to protect liberty was to divide the functions of government and power into three branches – executive, legislative, judicial
Each branch should serve as a check to the other two – “checks and balances”

7. The Philosophes: Voltaire
“My trade is to say what I think”
Used wit to target abuses of his day – corrupt officials, idle aristocrats
Used writings to battle inequality, injustice, and superstition
Deplored slave trade and religious prejudice
Offended both French government and Catholic Church – imprisoned and exiled but continued to defend free speech.
“I don’t agree with a word you say but I will defend to my death your right to say it”

8. The Philosophes: Beccaria
On Crimes and Punishments
Condemned torture and the death penalty
Punishments should be in degree to the severity of the crime
Treasons = worst because it harms the social contract
Best way to prevent crimes were to enact clear and simple laws, reward virtue and improve education
Law exists to preserve social contract and benefit society as a whole

9. The Philosophes: Adam Smith
The Wealth of Nations argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity
Supply and demand create favorable balance of trade
Supporter of laissez Faire – allowing business to operate with little or no government interference
This kind of economic thinking replaced mercantilist policies of previous years because mercantilism required government regulation to achieve a favorable balance of trade

10. The Philosophes: Women
Germaine de Stael in France, Catherine Macaulay & Mary Wollstonecraft in England argued women were being excluded from social contract itself
Mary Wollstonecraft
Accepted women should be good mothers
Should not have to depend on husband to decide what was in her best interest
Called for equal education of boys and girls so girls could participate in public life

11. The Philosophes: Diderot
The Encyclopedia – 28 volume set of books
To “change the general way of thinking”
Explained topics on government, philosophy and religion
Included articles from famous thinkers of the day
Helped spread enlightenment ideas

12. New Ideas Challenge Society
Educated people all over Europe read Diderot’s Encyclopedia and more and more believed reform was necessary
Enlightenment ideas were discussed in salons, informal social gatherings where philosophes exchanged ideas
Belief in divine right of kings, a strict class system, earthly suffering for heavenly reward now seemed unscientific and irrational
Not everyone agreed – most government and church authorities felt it their duty to defend the old order
To protect against attacks they waged censorship- restricted access to ideas and information; burned books, imprisoned writers
To avoid censorship some writers disguised their ideas in works of fiction

13. Art & Literature Baroque Rococo
Art & architecture in Greek/Roman style
Huge, colorful, full of excitement
Glorified battles and lives of saints
Art moved away from religion
Was light, elegant and charming
Delicate shells and flowers
Pastels used

14. Art & Literature Music Literature “Classical”, ballets, operas
Johann Sebastian Bach
George Fredric Handel – Water Music
Franz Joseph Haydn
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Developed new forms and wider audience
Middle class readers liked stories of their times told in straightforward prose - novels
Daniel Defoe – Robinson Crusoe

15. Enlightened Despots
Philosophes hoped to convince the ruling classes that reform was necessary.
Some monarchs did accept Enlightenment ideas and used their power to bring about social change
Frederick II of Prussia – reduce torture, granted freedom of press, simplified laws and established religious toleration
Catherine the Great of Russia – abolished torture, established religious tolerance
Joseph II of Austria (son of Maria Theresa) – religious toleration, ended censorship (allowed freedom of press) abolished serfdom