1. Motivation Factors Lecturer: Sharon Porter Class 7

2. Learning Objectives Describe the three elements of motivation.
Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today.
Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by objectives.
Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

3. Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements
Intensity – how hard a person tries
Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort
It is easy to see that some individuals are more motivated than others. However, the reasons for that motivation are more difficult to determine. When defining motivation it is important to look at the interaction between the individual and the situation. There are three key elements that help us define motivation. The first is intensity or how hard the person tries to accomplish the task. The second element is direction and that is the effort that is channeled toward organizational goals. The final element is persistency or how long a person can maintain the effort.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

4. Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
There are number of theories of motivation that help us gain a better understanding of the concept. Some of the earlier theories are not entirely valid anymore but they are still used by many managers.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must move in hierarchical order
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Higher Order
Internal
The first theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1950’s. His theory states that with every individual there is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is met or satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. His theory posits that individuals are stuck in their existing need level until it is satisfied and then they can move on to the next level. For example, until their safety needs are met, they will not be able to move on to the social level.
Lower Order
External
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

6. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two contrasting views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory.
Theory X
Workers have little ambition
Dislike work
Avoid responsibility
Theory Y
Workers are self-directed
Enjoy work
Accept responsibility
Douglas McGregor added to the motivation work done in the 1950’s and developed the theory called Theory X, Theory Y. He believed that there are two distinct views of human beings that managers hold. The Theory X view is basically negative and believes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, and avoid responsibility. The Theory Y view is in contrast to X and believes that workers tend to be self-directed, enjoy work, and accept responsibility. Managers will modify their behavior toward employees based on what view they hold about them.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

7. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for Power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
Hard to measure
The final earlier theory of needs we will look at is McClelland’s need theory. He bases his theory on the idea that people are motivated in the workplace by three main needs. The first need is the need for achievement or the drive to excel in relation to a set of defined standards. The second is the need for power, to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The final need addressed in this theory is the need for affiliation. Affiliation looks at the relationship aspect and the desire for close relationships. People will have varying levels of these needs, which make this theory difficult to measure.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

8. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self-Determination Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
There are a number of contemporary theories of motivation that have utilized the older theories to provide us with a deeper understanding of motivation in the workplace.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

9. Self-Determination Theory
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation.
Major Implications for Work Rewards
Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it
The self-determination theory states that people prefer to have control over their actions. So when they are required to do something they previously freely chose, it will diminish their motivation.
This theory sets forth that in the workplace, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent of one another. In fact, the presence of extrinsic rewards may decrease the intrinsic rewards. In addition to extrinsic rewards, managers need to realize the importance of using goal setting and verbal rewards as a method to increase motivation.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

10. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise:
That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
Difficult Goals:
Focus and direct attention
Energize the person to work harder
Difficulty increases persistence
Force people to be more effective and efficient
Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
Culture (best match is in North America)
Edwin Locke developed what is called the goal-setting theory. The idea behind this theory is that goals that are specific and effectively difficult can lead to higher performance if they include self-generated feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual to focus and direct attention as well as energize them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal will increase persistence and force people to be more effective and efficient.
The relationship between goals and performance depends on how committed the individual is to the goal as well as how specific the tasks are. Most of the research has been done in the United States so the applicability of this theory to other cultures is suspect.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

11. Implementation: Management by Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal specificity
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
An implementation of the goal-setting theory is Management by Objectives, better known as MBO. MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting theory, in which goals are set jointly by managers and employees. The goals must be tangible, verifiable, and measurable in order to be effective. The manager helps to break down the organizational goals into smaller more specific goals for the employee. In order for MBO to be effective, the goals must be specific, the employees must participate in the goal setting, there must be a defined time period, and feedback must be incorporated into the process.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

12. Increasing Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Most important source of efficacy
Gaining relevant experience with task or job
“Practice makes perfect”
Vicarious modeling
Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself
Verbal persuasion
Motivation through verbal conviction
Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
Arousal
Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Self-efficacy can be increased in several ways. The first is increasing your mastery of a task/skill. Another way is to model your actions after someone else who performs the task effectively and applying their actions to your own. The final methods to increase self-efficacy is to receive verbal persuasion through others as well as getting excited about completing the task.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

13. Reinforcement Theory
Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one
Behavior is environmentally caused
Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause
The Reinforcement Theory is based on the goal-setting theory we looked at earlier. However, it focuses on behaviors instead of cognitive factors. This theory believes that reinforcement conditions behavior and by reinforcing certain behaviors we can increase the types of behaviors that impact organizational effectiveness in a positive way. This theory is based on the idea that behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior is believed to be based on the consequences and not on thoughts, feelings, or attitudes.
This theory is not technically a motivational theory, rather it is a method used to analyze behavior. It is important to keep in mind that reinforcement does impact behavior but it is not the only factor that does so.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

14. Global Implications Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Order of needs is not universal
Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal
Unfortunately, in the area of motivation theory, the vast majority of research has been done in the United Sates and is culturally bound. There does seem to be a universal acceptance that a desire for interesting work is common across the globe, but there is no research to support this.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

15. Summary and Managerial Implications
Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg)
Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
Goal-Setting Theory
While limited in scope, good predictor
All theories have limitations but help improve a manager’s understanding about motivation in the workplace.
It is important to consider these theories when designing workplace programs and procedures.
There are a number of theories that can increase our understanding as managers about motivation in the workplace. It is important to utilize these theories when designing workplace programs and procedures.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.