1. Research Methods & Statistics in Sociology

2. Research methods
Sociology is the science that studies human society and social behavior
Sociologists like most scientists us empirical research to answer questions
Research methods commonly used include
Experience
Observation
Experimentation

3. Research methods
The scientific method is an objective, logical and systematic way of collecting empirical data and arriving at conclusions
Researchers who use the scientific method
Try and prevent their own notions, values and biases from interfering with their research
Use reason to in drawing conclusions from data
Carry out research in an organized and methodical manner

4. Issues of interest
The main interest is the structure and function of various features of society
How are groups organized and how do these groups affect society
Rates of behavior
How groups of people with similar characteristics behavie under given circumstances
Stability and change over time of a society’s features

5. Correlation Correlation does NOT show causation!!!
Correlational studies are used to predict/look at a relationship between two variables
Sociological variables include
Race
Age
Gender
Income
Education level
Illusory correlation
When two variables appear to be related, but in fact are not
Typically influenced by a third or extraneous variable
Ex: hospitalization and death appear to be correlated, but this does not mean hospitalization cause death, but seriously ill people are typically hospitalized

6. Correlation Correlation coefficient
Shows the degree of a relationship between two variables
Perfect correlation (+/- 1.00)
Positive/negative indicates the slope of the scatterplot
No correlation (0.00)

7. Experiment The only way to establish causation is with an experiment
Experiments manipulate an independent variable (IV) and study the effects by looking at the dependent variable (DV)
Ex: IV – amount spent studying
DV – grades

8. The research process in sociology
Step 1: Define the problem
Step 2: Review the literature
Step 3: Form a hypothesis
Step 4: Choose a research design
Step 5: Collect the data
Step 6: Analyze the data
Step 7: Present conclusions

9. The research process in sociology
Step 1: Define the problem
Select a topic for study
Develop operational definitions
Operational definitions allows replication by defining key variables/characteristics in a study
Ex: To effectively study the effects of social integration on suicide rates you must clearly define social integration and suicide rates

10. The research process in sociology
Step 2: Reviewing the literature
This allows sociologists to determine how others have approached a particular research problem and the conclusions they have reached
Ex: reviewing statistics on suicide

11. The research process in sociology
Step 3: Forming a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between two or more variables
Ex: Suicide rates within groups vary inversely depending on which group members are integrated into society

12. The research process in sociology
Step 4: Choose a research design
Surveys
Experiments
Observational studies
Analysis of existing sources
Ex: statistically analyze official records on suicide rates for a particular nation to test the hyposthesis

13. The research process in sociology
Step 5: Collect the data
Once a sociologist has chosen a research design, they follow the design in terms of collecting data
Ex: recording the results of a survey on suicide

14. The research process in sociology
Step 6: Analyze the data
Data is collected to support or reject the hypothesis
Researchers must be careful to maintain their objectivity and not read into the data to only see what they want or else the study is biased

15. The research process in sociology
Step 7: present the conclusions
Drawing conclusions from the data and presenting the research findings to others
Research reports are often published in:
professional journals
Scholarly books

16. Basic Research Methods
The Historical Method
Examines materials from the past that contain information of interest to sociologists
This allows researchers to learn about events that happened in the recent past or long ago
Trends
Personal points of view
The materials can include:
Toys
Clothing
Pictures
Diaries
newspapers

17. Basic Research Methods
Content analysis looks at recorded communication
Radio
Television
Movies
Art
magazines
Books
documents
Content analysis
This method involves counting the number of times a particular word, phrase, idea, event, symbol, or other element appears in a given context
This method is popular because it is easy to use and is inexpensive

18. Basic Research Methods
The survey method
Allows sociologists to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large numbers of people
Survey/Questionnaires
Pro: a lot of info in a short period of time
Con: must rely solely on answers to draw a conclusion
Interviews
Pro: allows researcher to clarify information
Con: time consuming and expensive

19. Basic Research Methods
Observation
Allows researchers to observe behavior of individuals in actual social settings
Detached observations (naturalistic observation)
Pro: behavior is not affected since people don’t know they’re being watched
Con: may miss important details
Participant observations
Pro: researcher is directly involved
Con: if not involved anonymously their presence may affect participant behavior

20. Basic Research Methods
Case study
Intensive analysis of a person, group, event, or problem
Pro: provides an in-depth information on infrequent or temporary event (natural disasters)
Con: can’t generalize

21. Basic Research Methods
Correlation
A correlation is a measure of the relationship between two variables.
A variable is any behavior or condition that can change in quantity or quality.
Ex: age, hair color, weight, height
Correlation does NOT show causation (aka cause and effect)
When two variable have a relationship we say they are correlated
Ex: Studying and good grades

22. Basic Research Methods
Correlation Coefficient
A correlation coefficient describes the relationship between variables.
A perfect positive correlation is +1.00
A perfect negative correlation is -1.00
No correlation is 0

23. Basic Research Methods

24. Basic Research Methods
Causation
The only way to prove causation is with an experiment.
In an experiment researchers manipulate variables to establish cause and effect.
The Independent Variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher
The Dependent Variable (DV) is the outcome/effect
Example: The student’s test grade (DV) depends on the amount of time spent studying (IV).

25. Basic Research Methods
Causation cont…
Researchers use control and experimental groups to study the differences due to the manipulation of the IV.
The control group gets a placebo or “fake”
The experimental group gets the IV manipulated
Ex: effects of alcohol
The control gets the placebo or fake beer (O’dool’s)
The experimental group gets real alcohol

26. Statistics Statistical Analysis Using mathematical data
Measures of central tendency
Mean – mathematical average
Median – middle score
Mode – most frequently occurring number

27. Statistics Measures of variation
Range – mathematical difference between highest and lowest scores
Standard deviation – how much scores vary around the mean
You will not need to know how to do a standard deviation, just know what it is 

28. Statistics