1. Thinking & Problem Solving

2. Thinking

3. Thought
Cognition—mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge
Thinking—manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions.
Mental processes directed at a goal or purpose.
2 kinds of mental representations:
Mental image—representation of objects or events that are not present
Concepts – mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features.

4. Mental Image
Mental Image – mental representation of an object or event not physically present.
Mental imaging works similar to actual visual imaging.
Mental images are constructed and therefore subject to error.

5. Steven Kosslyn had people memorize a map of an island and then asked them to imagine specific areas.
People took time to mentally scan their mental image and find the different locations.
People took the same amount of time to mentally scan the image as they did to visually scan it.

6. Concepts
Concept—mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features.
Three Types of Concepts:
Formal concept
Natural concept
Prototype

7. Concept Hierarchy
A means to keep mental information organized from basic concepts to specific ones
Move from basic category to more specific subordinate categories.

8. Concept Hierarchy

9. Examples of Concepts
Formal concept— rigid rules or features that define a particular concept.
All or nothing categorization process
Categories for solid, liquid, or gas
A square is…
Natural concept—Eleanor Rosch said these form from everyday experience and do not have boundaries that are sharply defined
Members of these share a kind of “family resemblance” that helps us to recognize items that belong in the same category, even if they are not identical.
Example: space shuttle & hot air balloon are both examples of the natural concept “aircraft”

10. Prototype A model A typical best example of a particular thing
The closer a new object is to our concept prototype the easier it is to categorize it
If an object has four wheels and doors it probably fits our prototype for…

11. Problem Solving
Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available.
Must understand the problem correctly to accurately solve it.

12. Kinds of Thinking
Convergent Thinking – focused on finding a particular answer to a problem
Divergent Thinking – Thinking Creatively to generate as many possible answers to a question or problem as you can. “Brainstorming”
Incubation – Leave the problem for a time, allowing their minds to work on it without conscious effort. (Can led to Insight)

13. Trial & Error
Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don’t work.

14. Algorithms
A problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem
Not always the most efficient method
y + z = r2

15. Using an Algorithm Pick any month of the year.
Look at four dates that form a square in that month and add them together for a total.
Given this total, how can you determine the four dates the person chose using an algorithm?
To find the first date divide the sum by 4 and then subtract 4.
To find the second date just add 1 to the date you got above.
To find the third date add 7 to the first date.
To find the fourth date add 8 to the first date.

16. Heuristics
A rule-of-thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but does not guarantee a solution
Examples:
What is 79 x 10?
Need milk? Go to the dairy sections of store rather than search the entire store.
“I” before “E” except after “C”
They simplify the problem because they let you reduce the number of possible solutions.
These can be handy shortcuts, or they can get us into trouble. (What about words like “weird”)

17. Two ways we use Heuristics
Subgoals – divide the problem into to smaller more manageable parts
As you solve each subproblem you get closer to solving the larger problem.
Working Backward – determine the steps to reach your goal starting from the end point. (i.e. making a budget).

18. Insight
The sudden realization of the solution to a problem – correct answer suddenly comes to us.
“Unconscious Problem Solving” – You’re not aware of the thought process that led you to an insight.
The solutions to these problems are often characterized by sudden flashes of insight. Solutions are on page 288 in your textbook.

19. Intuition
Intuition—coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved
Kenneth Bowers explains: New info is combined with existing info in the long-term memory in a two-stage process.
Guiding Stage – Unconsciously look for a pattern in the info. Based on your expertise and memories.
Integrative Stage – Pattern is now in the consciousness in the from of a hunch.
You then try to prove or disprove your hunch/hypothesis.

20. Obstacles to Solving Problems

21. Functional Fixedness Type of mental set
Inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one
Have to unlock the door?
key words: functional fixedness; mental set; problem solving
Some examples of overcoming functional fixedness include:
1. Using a dime to unscrew something when a screwdriver cannot be found.
2. Using a book to prop open a door when a doorstop cannot be found.
3. Before a baseball game, a rainstorm occurred. They wanted to dry the field a little before beginning play, so they had a helicopter hover above the field, and the rotating helicopter blades acted as a fan and helped dry up the field.
Use a credit card.
Tighten a screw without a screwdriver?
Use a coin!

22. Mounting candle problem
Using only the objects present on the right, attach the candle to the bulletin board in such a way that the candle can be lit and will burn properly
key words: functional fixedness, mental set; problem solving
Although students can work on this problem by simply thinking and visualizing a solution in their heads, this demonstration works better by by bringing the actual materials to class and doing a live demonstration with your students, letting them attemtp to solve the problem through trial and error.
To do this task you need the following materials:
1. a cork bulletin board
2. a book of matches
3. a candle
4. a BOX of thumbtacks
- make sure you keep the thumbtacks in a BOX
- also make sure the thumbtacks aren't too big that they can pass through your candle. The smaller the thumb tack, the better

23. Answer to candle problem
Most people do not think of using the box for anything other than its normal use (to hold the tacks)
To solve the problem, you have to overcome functional fixedness
key words: functional fixedness; mental sets; problem solving

24. Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past
A well-established habit of perception or thought
The set may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

25. Nine dots problem
Without lifting your pencil or re-tracing any line, draw four straight lines that connect all nine dots
key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

26. Nine dots mental set
Most people will not draw lines that extend from the square formed by the nine dots
To solve the problem, you have to break your mental set & the implicit assumption you have to stay within the dots.
key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

27. Fixation A mental set that hinders the solution of a problem
One needs to think beyond the mental set to solve the new problem

28. Can you measure out the amount of water in the right-hand column, using any of the three jars (A, B, and C) with volumes as shown in the middle column?

29. Problem 6 can be solved with a simpler formula (A - C), and so can Problem 7 (A + C). Many people miss these easy solutions because the mental set from the first several problems becomes fixated. Did your thinking stay flexible?
Problems 1 through 7 can all be solved by filling Jar B, then pouring off enough water to fill Jar A once and Jar C twice
desired volume = B - A - 2C

30. Problem 6 can be solved with a simpler formula (A - C), and so can Problem 7 (A + C). Many people miss these easy solutions because the mental set from the first several problems becomes fixated. Did your thinking stay flexible?
Problems 1 through 7 can all be solved by filling Jar B, then pouring off enough water to fill Jar A once and Jar C twice
desired volume = B - A - 2C

31. Decision Making

32. Decision Making
Single feature model—make a decision by focusing on only one feature
Do you use this model in making decisions?
Ever choose a date based on looks?
Go see a movie because a friend told you it was good?
Choose a restaurant based on price?
Choose a class based on how easy you heard it was?

33. Additive Model
Systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative.
First create a list of factors that are important to you.
Then rate each alternative on each factor.
What factors do you consider when choosing a college? (See transparency chart)

34. 1 = BEST 5 = WORST TUITION COST ACADEMIC RANKING HOUSING DEGREE/
PROGRAMS OFFERED
SOCIAL LIFE
TOTALS
U of M
WMU
1 = BEST 5 = WORST

35. Elimination-by-Aspects
Rate choices based on features.
Evaluate each alternative one characteristic at a time staring with the one you think is most important.
Eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria even if they have other desirable characteristics.
Over time your alternatives will be narrowed down.
We often use this to get our options to a few and then use the additive model to make the final decision.

36. Decisions Involving Uncertainty

37. Availability Heuristic
Uses information from our memory to judge the likelihood of events
When instances of an event are easily recalled we consider that event more likely to reoccur.
Can be correct or incorrect

38. Availability Heuristic
Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event
Rare events can cause us to overestimate the likelihood of reoccurrence (Fallacy of Positive Instances).
After 9/11 there was a sharp decrease in the number of people using air travel while driving increased significantly.
key words: availability heuristic

39. Representative Heuristic
Estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing how similar its essential features are to our prototype or schema we already have in our mind.
Example: Is the following person more likely to be an Ivy League psych professor or a truck driver?
A man, 5’7”, 155 pounds, who wears glasses, attends poetry readings & enjoys classical music
Statistically, he is far more likely to be a truck driver because there are hundreds of thousands of truck drivers and possibly only Ivy League psych professors.
Even if 50% of professors fit the schema it still is statistically more likely to be a truck driver.
key words: representativeness heuristic

40. Rep. Heuristic Can be False if…
We fail to consider possible variations from the prototype.
Fail to consider approximate number of prototypes that actually exist.
If it has webbed feet, a bill and lays eggs it meets my prototype for a duck so it must be a duck!
BUT YOU FORGOT IT COULD BE A…

41. Bias Effects
Confirmation bias—only search for information confirming one’s belief.
Belief bias/perseverance—accept only information that conforms to beliefs
Self-Serving Bias – Take credit for good results and share the blame for failures.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – Tendency to act in ways that will confirm your belief thereby making it come true.
key words: inductive reasoning; confirmation bias

42. Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct when estimating the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
How well do you know your info for this test?
How long will it take you to do your homework? – Do you tend to underestimate how long it takes? - Overconfidence is why!

43. More Faulty Thinking Dunning-Kruger Effect Hindsight Bias
“Illusory Superiority”
People who are bad at something often think they are good at it.
Their incompetence keeps them from realizing they are incompetent.
Hindsight Bias
“Knew it all Along”
When we learn the outcome of an event or solution to a problem, we are convinced the answer was quite obvious.

44. Framing
The way an issue is worded or presented can influence decisions and judgments
Do you think it is OK to kill unborn children?
Do you believe that abortion is an appropriate option for those with unwanted pregnancies?
What is 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1?
What is 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8?
Answer: 40,320 (we tend to overestimate the first one based on how it is written)

45. Belief Bias/Perseverance
Clinging to one’s beliefs even after new information discredits the basis on which they were formed
Especially true if you have made your belief public to others.
The best advice to give people who want to avoid belief perseverance is: “Consider the Opposite”

46. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Rosenhan study (Famous Study #13)
Teachers told they had “bright” students found ways to get them to excel.

47. Strategies for solving problems
1. Break mental sets – be creative! (see next slide)
2. Find useful analogy
3. Represent information efficiently
4. Find shortcuts
5. Establish sub-goals
6. Turn ill-defined problems into well-defined problems
key words: functional fixedness; mental sets; problem solving; finding analogies; shortcuts; heuristics; subgoals; ill-defined problems; well-defined problems

48. Be Creative! (pg. 313-314) Choose the goal of creativity
Reinforce creative behavior
Engage in problem finding
Acquire relevant knowledge
Try different approaches
Exert effort and expect setbacks