1. Spontaneity, Entropy and Free Energy
Chapter 17

2. Homework
Due with next test
Page 807
23-71 odd

3. Equations Sheet

4. Thermodynamics vs. Kinetics
Kinetics deals with rate of a reaction, this depends on the pathway from reactants to products.
Thermodynamics tells us whether a reaction is spontaneous, or thermodynamically favored based only on the properties of reactants and products.

5. Rate of reaction
Kinetics and rate laws tell us how quickly a reaction will progress.
This is due to temperature, concentration etc.
It is possible to have a reaction that is thermodynamically favored, however, react at such a slow rate that it appears not to react at all.
Such reactions are said to be under kinetic control.

6. Spontaneous Processes
Thermodynamics lets us predict whether a process is spontaneous, or will occur on its own, but gives no information about the amount of time required for the process.
A spontaneous process is one that occurs without outside intervention.
The AP test is using the expression thermodynamically favored more to get rid of confusion with the common definition, that is not what chemistry uses, of spontaneous meaning “immediately” or “without cause”

7. Spontaneous Processes
A ball rolls down a hill, but never spontaneously rolls back up the hill.
If exposed to air and moisture, steel rusts spontaneously, but rust doesn’t spontaneously react to make iron metal and oxygen gas.
A gas fills a container uniformly. It never spontaneous collects at one end of the container.
Heat always flows from a hot object to a cold one. The reverse process never occurs spontaneously.
Wood burns exothermically to form carbon dioxide and water, but wood is not formed when the two compounds are heated together.

8. First Two Laws of thermodynamics
1st law of thermodynamics, (Law of conservation of energy) the amount of energy in the universe is constant. E = 0
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it can only change forms.
2nd law of thermodynamics, in any spontaneous process there is always an increase in the entropy of the universe. S > 0
Energy in the universe is constant, but entropy is always increasing.

9. Entropy
Originally, chemists thought spontaneity was a property of exothermic reactions only. That is incorrect.
Endothermic reactions can be spontaneous (photosynthesis), and not all exothermic reactions are spontaneous.
Scientists have since concluded that the common characteristic of all spontaneous reactions is an increase in entropy.
Entropy (S) is said to be a measure of molecular randomness or disorder of a system.

10. Possible arrangements
Entropy uses the number of possible arrangements that are available to a system existing in a given state.
Consider a cord
There are a couple of arrangements that we would consider “neat”, how many different arrangements are there that we would called “tangled”?
Thousands more
Nature spontaneously moves toward the states that have the highest probabilities of existing.
Entropy compares the number of arrangements (positions and/or energy levels) that are available to a system existing in a given state.

11. Positional Entropy
A gas expands into a vacuum because the expanded state has the highest positional probability of states available to the system.
Therefore: Ssolid < Sliquid << Sgas

12. The Expansion of An Ideal Gas Into an Evacuated Bulb

13. Probability
Imagine that diagram from the previous slide with a smaller number of atoms.
Imagine 2 atoms in the vessel.
What is the probability that all atoms are one side?
What is the probability that one atom is on each side?
Now put four atoms in in the vessel.
What is the probability all atoms are on one side?
What is the probability that one atom is on one side and three on the other?
What is the probability that there are two on each side?

14. Possible states Here are the possible states of the vessel.
You can see there are just more states when it is even and several more when it is one off from being even.

15. Number of arrangements
But back to the original diagram (~60 atoms), what is the probability that that is even, one off etc.
Of course you are not going to notice if it is few off.
You find as you add more particles, the probability increases that the particles will be nearly even.
For 60 atoms there is a 84% chance that the particles will be even ± 5
There is a 5.2x10-15 % of 1 atom being one side, and 59 on the other.
The diagram of course is ridiculous, because we always talk about moles of atoms.
1 mole is 6.022x1023 atoms
What is the probability that that will be very nearly even?
I did the calculations using binompdf(60,.5,30) it is in the distribution menu on the calculator. The first number is the number of atoms, .5 for the number of places It could be, 30 for the number of times it came up.

16. Questions
For each of the following pairs, choose the substance with the higher positional entropy (per mole) at a given temperature.
1. Solid CO2 and gaseous CO2
2. N2 gas at 1 atm and N2 at 1.0 x 10-2 atm
Predicting Entropy Changes.
Predict the sign of the entropy change, S, for each of the following processes.
1. Solid sugar is added to water to form a solution.
2. Iodine vapor condenses on a cold surface to form crystals.

17. Condensation has a negative S
How can anything spontaneously (naturally) condense if it has a negative S, change in entropy?
Water spontaneously condenses on pop cans and plants all the time!?!
To answer this, you need to step back and look at the entire universe, not just the system.
We have a tendency to focus on the system and ignore the surroundings.
Sometimes parts of a universe need to be organized (or clumped together) to allow other parts of the maximum amount of disorder.

18. Cont.
Compare how much one thing (system or surroundings) increased in entropy to how much the other thing decreased in entropy.
As long as the overall change in entropy for the universe is positive, it can happen spontaneously.
Back to water condensing…
Water doesn’t condense on pop cans. Water condenses on COLD pop cans, in warm moist air.
Water doesn’t condense on warm pop cans in the same surrounding, or cold pop cans in a cold surrounding (fridge)

19. Cont. again A cold pop can in a warmer area is a state of low entropy.
In order to increase the entropy of the pop can’s temperature, heat needs to transfer from the surrounding area to the pop can. S = +
In doing so, this forces the water vapor to condense decreasing entropy. S = -
Which change is greater?
Without calculations, we can conclude that the entropy increases more than it decreases for an overall positive S for the universe because this process happens spontaneously.

20. To predict spontaneity, we must know the sign of S
It helps to break the entropy up into the categories of universe, system and surroundings
 Suniv =  Ssys +  Ssurr
 Suniv > 0, then the entropy of the universe increases and the process is spontaneous in the direction written.
If  Suniv < 0 the process is spontaneous in the reverse direction.
If  Suniv = 0, then the process has no tendency to occur or the system is at equilibrium.

21. Using S
Because Suniv is the important factor in determining whether a process is spontaneous or not, it is not the most useful concept in chemistry.
In chemistry, we are normally concerned with the system, not the universe. That is to say, we are looking at our reaction, not everything around it.
Don’t use S to determine whether a reaction is spontaneous or not.

22. Question
Plants and animals grow. This is an obvious decrease in entropy. Are all living things a violation of the 2nd law of thermodynamics?
In any living organism, large molecules are assembled from smaller ones. Is this process consistent with the second law?
Yes, as long as other processes that force this to happen in the cell obtain a larger increase in entropy than the decrease in entropy by the creation of the larger molecule.

23. Answer
Living things don’t grow isolated from the universe. In order to grow, an animal must eat.
What is eating?
Taking large complex molecules and breaking them down to smaller molecules to release energy.
This is a large increase in entropy.
Again, based off observation we can say these other processes do have a larger increase in entropy because this action does happen spontaneously.

24. Plants Plant’s don’t eat.
They actually do undergo cellular respiration, so in a sense they do “eat”, they just make their own food.
In order to make their food, plants need to be next to a source to a of increasing entropy.
That is the Sun.
This is how all nonspontaneous reactions are “forced” to occur. They are placed in an environment where something else will increase in entropy. If Ssurr is positive, Ssys can be negative and Suniv still be positive

25. The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity.
Consider the following:
H2O(l)  H2O(g)
Water is the system, everything else is the surroundings.
Consider the entropy of liquid and gaseous water.
Explain what happens if this is left at a constant temperature, heated or cooled.

26. Direction of heat flow and the sign of S
At a constant temperature (from everything other than the reaction), an exothermic process releases heat to the surrounding area.
This increases the random motion and thus the entropy of the surroundings.
For exothermic reactions, Ssurr is always positive.
For endothermic reactions, Ssurr is always negative.
Therefore, endothermic reactions normally need to be heated to account for this and make them spontaneous.

27. The magnitude of DSsurr depends on the temperature
That is to say that an area that is already “hot”, will already have a high level of entropy.
Adding heat energy will increase the randomness, however, you will not see the same level of increase as you would if you added the heat energy to something that is “cold” and therefore has a lower level of entropy.

28. Energy will cause entropy changes
Therefore the energy changes will be the driving force of the reaction
DSsurr = _ DHsys T

29. Determining DSsurr
In the metallurgy of antimony, the pure metal is recovered via different reactions, depending on the composition of the ore. For example, iron is used to reduce antimony in the sulfide ores:
 Sb2S3(s) + 3Fe(s) 2Sb(s) + 3FeS(s) DH = -125 kJ
Carbon is used as the reducing agent for oxide ores:
Sb4O6(s) + 6C(s)  4Sb(s) + 6CO(g) DH = 778 kJ
Calculate DSsurr for each of these at 25o C and 1 atm.

30. Role ofSsys and Ssurr in Determining the Sign of Suniv

31. Gibbs Free Energy
Some reactions are spontaneous because they release energy, which increases the entropy of the surrounding area.
Some reactions are spontaneous because they involve an increase in the entropy of the system.
Gibbs Free energy (G) is a function that combines the system’s enthalpy and entropy.
G = H - TS
Where H is enthalpy, T is temperature, and S is entropy.

32. Free Energy
The free energy change (DG) is a measure of the spontaneity of a process and of the useful energy available from it.
DG = DH - TDS
This is the driving force of a reaction, and what you will use to determine if a reaction is spontaneous or not.
A NEGATIVE value for DG means the process is spontaneous.
POSITIVE means the reaction is not spontaneous.

33. Exergonic/Endergonic
Exothermic and endothermic are describing the enthaply of the system, H.
Exergonic reactions are one that release free energy to the system for work or have a negative DG. These are spontaneous, or thermodynamically favored.
Endergonic reactions are one that absorb free energy from the system for work or have a positive DG. These are not spontaneous, or are not thermodynamically favored.

34. Relating Gibbs Free Energy to spontaneity
DG = DH - TDS divide each side by (-T)
-DG/T = - DH/T + DSsys DSsurr = - DH/T
- DG = DSsurr + DSsys T
DSuniv = - DG
Conclusion: A process (at constant T and P) is spontaneous in the direction in which the free energy decreases
A negative DG means there is a positive DSuniv

35. Spontaneous reactions
Exothermic reactions tend to be spontaneous.
DH is negative.
Reactions that involve and increase in their entropy tend to be spontaneous.
DS is positive.
Temperature will always be positive (Kelvin Scale)
DG = DH – T DS
negative positive
A negative number minus a positive number so DG will always be negative and these reactions will always be spontaneous.

36. Nonspontaneous reactions
Endothermic reactions tend to not be spontaneous.
DH is positive.
Reactions that involve and decrease in their entropy tend to not be spontaneous.
DS is negative.
DG = DH – T DS
positive negative
Minus a negative number means adding, a positive number plus a positive number means DG will always be positive and this reaction will never be spontaneous.

37. Reactions dependent on the temperature
What if there is an endothermic reaction that involves an increase in entropy or and exothermic reaction that involves a decrease in entropy?
DG = DH – T DS
positive positive
Or negative negative
The temperature and value of DH, DS determine whether it is spontaneous or not.

38. Temperature
For the endothermic reaction with an increase in entropy, the reaction will be spontaneous at high temperatures. When T DS is larger DH.
How high of a temperature depends on the value of DH and DS
For the exothermic reaction with a decrease in entropy, the reaction will be spontaneous at low temperatures. When DH has a higher magnitude than T DS.
The magnitude of DH and DS is important to determining if a reaction is spontaneous.

39. Question
At what temperature is the following process spontaneous at 1 atm (not a number, words. What do we call this temperature)?
Br2(l)  Br2(g)
Any temperature above the boiling point, this process becomes spontaneous. Therefore, DG must be negative above the boiling point. If DG is positive, then the reverse will occur (condensation).
If you are at the boiling point, DG is zero.

40. Problem Br2(l)  Br2(g) DHo = 31.0 kJ/mol, and DSo = 93.0 J/K*mol
Determine what is the normal boiling point of liquid Br2? Set DG =0
Unit agreement!!!!!
Enthapy is in kilojoules/mole, entropy is in joules/mole kelvin

41. Review
DSuniv is positive for all spontaneous processes. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
This is impractical to chemistry, don’t use it
DG is the free energy change of the system.
This is much more practical to chemists.
DG is NEGATIVE when DSuniv is positive.
DG represents the usable work done by a system.
DGo = DHo - TDSo

42. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions.
Standard Molar Entropies, So.
In thermodynamics, the change in a certain function is usually what is important.
Absolute values for H and G cannot be determined.
From the third law of thermodynamics we find that at 0 K, the entropy of a pure crystal is equal to 0.

43. Because this provides a starting point to compare all other entropies, an absolute entropy scale has meaning.
Standard molar entropy, So, is the entropy of one mole of a substance in its standard state.
The degree symbol means at standard state which is 25o C and 1.0 atm.
So it is the change in entropy from 0 K to 298 K

44. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions.
Predicting Relative So Values of the System.
Temperature changes.
For a given substance, So increases as the temperature increase.
Physical states and phase changes.
For a given substance, So increases as the substance changes from a solid to a liquid to a gas (the change from a liquid to a gas is greater than from a solid to a liquid).

45. Dissolution of a solid or a liquid.
The entropy of a dissolved solid or liquid solute is greater than the entropy of the pure solute.
The type of solute and solvent and the nature of the solution process affects the overall entropy change.

46. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions.
Predicting Relative So Values of the System.
Dissolution of a gas.
A gas always becomes more ordered when dissolved in a liquid and gas.

47. Complexity
In general, difference in entropy values for substances in the same phase are based on atomic size and molecular complexity.
For elements within a periodic group, those with higher molar masses have higher entropy.
For compounds, the chemical complexity increases as the number of atoms (ions) in a compound increases, and so does the entropy.
For larger molecule, entropy increases with size.
IN GENERAL, THE LARGER THE MOLECULE, THE MORE ELECTRONS, THE MORE “POLARIZABLE” THE MOLECULE IS.

48. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions.
Predicting the Sign of DSo.
Predict the sign of DSo for each of the following reactions.
The thermal decomposition of solid calcium carbonate:
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The oxidation of SO2 in air:
2 SO2(g) + O2(g)  2 SO3(g)

49. Predicting Relative Entropy Values
Choose the member with the higher entropy in each of the following pairs, and justify your choice.
1 mol SO2(g) or 1 mol SO3(g)
1 mol CO2(s) or 1 mol CO2(g)
2 mol O2(g) or 2 mol O3(g)
1 mol KBr(s) or 1 mol KBr(aq)
Sea water in winter at 2 oC or in summer at 23 oC
1 mol HF(g) or 1 mol HI(g)